Place  of 

*       +         *^* 


&ducatJon 


Katharine  Elizabeth  Dopp 


THE  PLACE  OF  INDUSTRIES 
IN  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION 


THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  CHICAGO  PRESS 
CHICAGO,  ILLINOIS 


Bgcnts 
THE  BAKER  &  TAYLOR  COMPANY 

NEW  YOKK 

THE  CAMBRIDGE  UNIVERSITY  PRESS 

LONDON  AND  EDINBURGH 


VAc  Place  of  Induftricj 
in  &lementorj  Sducation 


By  Katharine  Elizabeth  Dopp 


The  University  of  Chicago  Press 

Chicago,  Illinois 


COPYRIGHT  1902  BY 
THE  UNIVEESITY  OF  CHICAGO 


All  Rights  Reserved 

Published  April  1903 
Second  Impression  October  1903 

Revised  Edition  June  1905 

Second  Impression  May  1906 

Third  Impression  August  1907 

Fourth  Impression  April  1908 

Fifth  Impression  October  1909 

Sixth  Impression  September  1910 

Seventh  Impression  January  1913 


Composed  and  Printed  By 

The  University  of  Chicago  Press 

Chicago.  Illinois.  U.S.A. 


CONTENTS. 
CHAPTER  I. 

FACE 

INTRODUCTION         .......      i 

CHAPTER  II. 
SIGNIFICANCE  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EPOCHS  -        -        -     14 

i.    The    House    Industries,    or    the    Period    of 

Domestic  Economy        -                   -  -  14 

a.  The  Hunting  Stage  -         -  -  16 

b.  The  Fishing  Stage  -                  -  -31 

c.  The  Pastoral  Stage  -                  -  -  35 

d.  The  Agricultural  Stage    -  -  40 

e.  The  Age  of  Metals  -  -  44 

f.  Travel,  Trade,  and  Transportation  -  48 

g.  The  City-State  -  51 
h.   The  Feudal  System  -  53 

2.^The  Handicraft  System,  or  the  Period  of 
Town  Economy  -  54 

3.  The  Factory  System,  or  the  Period  of  National 
Economy  -  -  56 

CHAPTER  III. 
ORIGINS  OF  ATTITUDES  THAT  UNDERLIE  INDUSTRY    60 

CHAPTER  IV. 

PRACTICAL  APPLICATIONS        ...  -    97 

1.  Guiding  Principles  -     97 

2.  Stage  of  Infancy  -  -  104 

3.  Transitional  Stage  from  Infancy  to  Childhood   121 

4.  Stage  of  Childhood        -  -         -         -  155 


304759 


CHAPTER  V. 

PRACTICAL  APPLICATIONS — Continued    -  -  173 

1.  The  Problem  of  the  Teacher  who  is  not  Fur- 
nished with  Materials  and  Tools  for  Industrial 
Activities      -  -  173 

2.  Suggestions   for    Industrial   Activities   which 
May  be  Introduced  in  Schools  not  Equipped 

for  Manual  Training     -  *  192 

CHAPTER  VI. 

CONCLUSION     -                                                          -  243 
INDEX 261 


AUTHOR'S  NOTE. 

THE  difficulties  that  beset  the  way  of  those 
interested  in  elementary  education  are  many. 
They  have  called  forth  much  discussion  during 
the  past  decade,  and  already  a  great  advance  has 
been  made.  If  this  book  contributes  to  the  gen- 
eral movement  it  will  doubtless  be  due  to  the 
fact  that  it  suggests  ways  of  bringing  into  vital 
relations  forces  and  materials  which,  hitherto, 
have  remained  almost  untouched. 

The  study  here  made  is  based  upon  several 
years'  practical  experience,  during  which  many 
tentative  efforts  were  made  along  lines  marked 
out  in  this  book,  as  well  as  upon  research  work 
in  the  Departments  of  Education  and  Sociology 
in  the  University  of  Chicago.  To  the  men  and 
women  of  these  departments,  from  whom  I  have 
received  much  in  the  way  of  guidance  and  inspira- 
tion, I  am  greatly  indebted.  They  all,  I  am 
sure,  will  recognize  in  the  discussion  of  the  stages 
of  mental  development  the  influence  of  Profes- 
sor Dewey;  and  in  the  interpretation  of  primitive 
activities,  that  of  Professor  W.  I.  Thomas. 

THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  CHICAGO, 
March,  1902. 


AUTHOR'S  NOTE  TO  REVISED  EDITION. 

SOON  after  the  publication  of  the  first  edition 
of  this  book,  letters  were  received  suggesting 
that  it  be  expanded  so  as  to  serve  as  a  teachers' 
manual.  Although  I  had  already  undertaken  a 
series  which  is  a  concrete  expression  of  the  the- 
ory presented,  the  length  of  time  required  to 
complete  the  work  is  so  great  that  it  has  seemed 
fitting  to  take  the  suggestion  and  to  present  in 
the  new  edition  of  this  book  a  chapter  which  it  is 
hoped  will  prove  helpful  in  bridging  the  gap  be- 
tween what  we  as  teachers  are  actually  doing 
and  what  we  believe  we  should  do.  Compara- 
tively few  schools  are  yet  equipped  for  practical 
activities,  and  few  teachers  are  familiar  with 
methods  of  using  them  as  laboratory  courses  to 
the  content  studies.  It  has  seemed  best,  there- 
fore, to  devote  the  new  chapter  (i)  to  ways  of 
procuring  a  material  equipment,  and  (2)  to  ways 
of  using  it  so  as  to  enhance  the  value  of  colonial 
history — a  subject  familiar  to  every  teacher  and 
taught  in  every  school. 

With  the  exception  of  the  frontispiece,  which 
is  from  the  School  of  Education  of  the  Univer- 
sity of  Chicago,  the  sources  of  the  illustrations 
are  indicated.  These  illustrations  show  more 
clearly  than  words  the  hold  which  practical  ac- 
tivities have  already  taken  upon  the  schools.  No 
more  powerful  appeal  can  be  made  for  such  work 
than  that  which  may  be  read  from  the  faces  of 
the  children.  K.  E.  D. 

JANUARY,  1905. 


CHAPTER  I. 

INTRODUCTION. 

ONE  of  the  most  striking  characteristics  of 
society  today  is  the  marvelous  development  that 
is  everywhere  manifest  along  industrial  lines.  In 
nearly  every  department  of  industry  the  simple 
processes  which  formerly  prevailed  have  become 
differentiated  into  a  great  variety  of  activities, 
and  all  have  been  organized  into  a  definite  sys- 
tem. Methods  of  exploiting  the  earth  in  the 
search  for  raw  materials,  processes  of  manufac- 
ture, and  modes  of  distribution  and  exchange 
have  become  wonderfully  complex.  The  influence 
of  this  change  is  far-reaching.  It  permeates 
every  department  of  life.  It  operates  in  the 
church  as  well  as  in  the  state,  in  the  home  as  well 
as  in  the  school.  No  institution  of  society  can 
escape  its  influence. 

Society  today  differs  from  earlier  societies,  not 
in  its  organic  character,  by  virtue  of  which  the 
life  of  one  institution  affects  that  of  every  other ; 
it  differs,  rather,  in  the  complexity  of  its  organi- 
zation, which  frequently  obscures  the  more  fun- 
damental relations  which,  in  primitive  societies, 
are  laid  bare  to  the  view. 

From  the  remotest  to  the  most  recent  times, 


2  THE  PLACE  OF  INDUSTRIES 

in  the  simplest  as  well  as  in  the  most  highly  or- 
ganized societies,  industry  has  been  a  dominant 
force  in  the  upbuilding  and  maintaining  of  social 
structures.  In  the  more  simple  social  groups  it 
is  possible  to  perceive  very  clearly  the  fundamen- 
tal place  of  industry  in  society  and  the  vitality  of 
its  relation  to  all  other  activities  in  life.  In  such 
societies  it  appears  as  the  matrix  that  holds 
within  itself  the  other  interests  of  life,  which  it 
nourishes  until  they  become  strong  enough  to 
support  themselves.  The  vitality  of  this  relation 
is  illustrated  in  more  developed  societies  in  the 
decadence  of  those  arts  whose  connection  with 
the  parent  stock  has  been  severed,  as  well  as  in 
the  remarkable  development  of  the  same  arts  dur- 
ing the  times  when  they  have  stood  in  such  rela- 
tions to  the  industrial  life  of  the  people  as  to  be 
constantly  receiving  and  giving  strong  currents 
of  inspiration. 

Human  beings  of  all  times  have  doubtless  been 
impelled  by  other  desires  than  those  which  under- 
lie industrial  activities ;  they  have  always  been 
dimly  conscious  of  unfulfilled  desires.  The  fact 
that  industry  has  ever  exercised  such  a  promi- 
nent place  in  conditioning  other  activities  is  not 
because  others,  at  times,  have  not  been  valued 
more  highly,  but  because  industry  is  the  sub- 
structure of  society,  which  conditions  its  very 
existence.  It  was  necessary  to  the  maintenance 


IN  ELEMENTAR  Y  ED  UCA  TION  3 

of  life  before  individuals  had  united  to  form 
social  groups.  It  was  an  essential  factor  in  the 
formation  and  maintenance  of  such  groups,  and 
has  been  a  permanent  factor  throughout  the  ages 
in  the  development  of  the  institutions  of  com- 
munity life. 

It  seems  evident,  then,  that  that  which  is  the 
condition  of  life  itself  and  the  fountain  source  of 
the  arts  and  institutions  of  society  should  have 
a  place  in  the  education  of  the  young,  upon  whom 
will  soon  fall  the  responsibility  of  maintaining 
and  advancing  the  activities  by  which  society  is 
sustained  and  strengthened.  This  need  has  always 
been  felt,  and  provision  of  some  kind  has  always 
been  made  for  putting  young  people  in  posses- 
sion of  such  experience  as  is  calculated  to  fit 
them  for  the  serious  work  of  life.  The  character 
of  this  training  has  varied  with  the  people  and 
the  age,  but  in  some  form  or  other  it  has  per- 
sisted throughout  all  time. 

Among  Aryan  peoples,  from  the  earliest  time  to 
the  latter  part  of  the  Middle  Ages,  this  training 
was  generally  attended  to  by  \hzfamily,  whether 
it  was  the  original  clan,  the  patriarchal  group,  the 
tribal  circle,  or  the  family  artificially  extended  by 
personal  servitude.  During  the  period  of  town 
economy,  which  extended  from  the  rise  of  the 
towns  and  the  development  of  handicrafts  in  the 
latter  part  of  the  Middle  Ages  until  the  industrial 


4  THE  PLACE  OF  INDUSTRIES 

revolution  of  the  eighteenth  century,  the  train- 
ing of  the  family  was  supplemented  and  in  some 
cases  superseded  by  the  system  of  apprenticeship. 
With  the  rise  of  national  economy,  technical  insti- 
tutions and  engineering  and  commercial  courses 
were  established  in  order  to  meet  the  demand  for 
trained  workers  to  manage  the  various  depart- 
ments of  highly  complex  industrial  undertakings. 
No  provision,  however,  was  made  for  the  training 
of  the  great  mass  of  the  workers  for  their  life- 
work.  This  was  partly  due,  no  doubt,  to  the  fact 
that  the  new  inventions  made  it  possible  to  utilize 
unskilled  labor  to  a  degree  not  known  before  that 
time. 

The  rapid  development  of  means  for  cheap 
manufacture  and  transportation  has  resulted,  as  is 
well  known,  in  the  withdrawal  of  the  industries 
formerly  carried  on  in  the  home  and  the  trans- 
planting of  the  same  into  factories  where  the  work 
is  carried  on  with  closed  doors.  The  child  of 
today  is  thus  deprived,  except  in  a  few  cases,  of 
the  opportunity  to  observe  or  to  participate  in 
the  industrial  processes  that  form  the  substratum 
of  all  of  our  social  achievements.  If  the  conse- 
quences of  this  situation  were  felt  only  in  the  out- 
put of  our  industrial  institutions,  the  consideration 
of  this  subject  might  well  be  left  in  the  hands  of 
the  captains  of  industry  and  the  economists.  If, 
however,  the  consequences  are  such  as  to  affect 


IN  ELEMENTARY  ED UCA  TION  5 

the  quality  of  life  itself,  the  subject  is  surely  one 
that  cannot  safely  be  neglected  by  those  inter- 
ested in  the  cause  of  education. 

It  is  because  it  is  believed  that  the  industrial 
training  of  the  young  holds  in  solution  the  essen- 
tial ideas  that  underlie  the  various  activities  of 
society,  and  that  this  substratum  of  experience 
in  industrial  processes  is  as  necessary  a  condition 
for  the  normal  development  of  the  individual  as 
racial  industry  has  been  for  the  maintenance  and 
advance  of  society  itself,  that  the  question  is 
beginning  to  command  the  attention  of  thought- 
ful people. 

Under  the  conditions  of  modern  life  we  can  no 
longer  expect  the  home  to  furnish  the  child  with 
experience  in  industrial  processes  ;  we  must  look 
to  some  other  institution.  The  institution  that 
we  look  to  most  naturally  is  the  school ;  but  the 
common-school  curriculum  is  already  over- 
crowded, and,  if  new  subjects  are  to  be  added  by 
the  process  of  aggregation,  all  interested  in  the 
work  must  object  to  any  such  change.  Happily, 
however,  in  respect  to  the  subject  under  consid- 
eration, industrial  training,  it  is  not  so  much  a 
question  of  imposing  greater  burdens  from  with- 
out as  it  is  of  finding  the  means  of  reconciliation 
between  the  child  and  the  subjects  already  there. 
The  mere  fact  that  every  one  recognizes  the  child 
as  being  burdened  with  his  school  work  is  signifi- 


6  THE  PLACE  OF  INDUSTRIES 

cant.  While  it  must  not  be  expected  that  indus- 
try will  of  itself  exercise  a  magic  touch  by  means 
of  which  all  the  burdens  of  the  school  will  be  trans- 
formed, it  is  not  too  much  to  expect  that  it  will 
exercise  a  potent  influence,  if  introduced  into  the 
schools  in  an  organic  way,  satisfying  at  the  same 
time  the  demands  of  the  child  and  of  society.  The 
difficulty  in  elementary  education  has  not  been  in 
the  child  nor  in  the  demands  made  by  society; 
it  has  been  in  the  failure  to  make  use  of  that  by 
means  of  which  the  two  may  be  brought  into 
vital  relationship. 

This  work  is  an  attempt  to  make  clear  that 
there  is  a  closer  relation  than  is  usually  recog- 
nized between  the  attitudes  of  the  child  and  the 
serious  activities  of  society  in  all  ages.  It  is  an 
attempt  to  bring  together  from  the  domain  of 
education,  on  the  one  hand,  and  of  anthropology, 
sociology,  and  history,  on  the  other,  ideas  that 
will  mutually  reinforce  each  other.  The  territory 
is  so  vast,  and  the  state  of  knowledge  in  the  de- 
partments concerned  is  as  yet  in  such  an  empirical 
state,  that  the  value  of  a  work  of  this  kind  con- 
sists rather  in  its  power  of  suggesting  new  ways 
of  dealing  with  old  problems  than  in  offering 
definite  solutions  to  them.  It  is  more  important 
at  this  stage  of  the  subject  to  get  a  general  sur- 
vey of  the  field  than  it  is  to  work  out  in  detail 
a  small  portion,  without  regard  to  its  relations 


IN  ELEMENTAR  Y  ED  UCA  TION  7 

to  a  larger  whole.  The  scope  of  this  work  for- 
bids „  a  minute  examination  of  any  one  phase. 
The  subject  is  treated  in  some  of  its  more  general 
aspects,  and  illustrations  are  introduced,  particu- 
larly with  reference  to  those  phases  to  which 
little  attention  has  yet  been  given. 

In  order  to  secure  a  basis  for  the  work  it  has 
seemed  best  to  consider,  on  the  one  hand,  the 
several  stages  of  industrial  development  in  the 
race  with  reference  to  the  educational  significance 
of  each,  and,  on  the  other,  the  successive  periods 
in  the  development  of  the  child.  In  the  consid- 
eration of  an  industrial  epoch  an  attempt  is  made 
to  discover  (i)  some  of  the  more  important  inter- 
actions that  take  place  between  man  and  his  nat- 
ural and  social  environment,  (2)  how  these  result 
in  different  forms  of  industry,  and  (3)  how  forms 
of  industry  influence  the  social  organization  of 
the  people  and  the  development  of  the  sciences 
and  arts.  The  attempt  is  also  made  to  show 
that  there  is  more  than  an  accidental  relation 
between  the  technique  represented  in  the  tool, 
and  the  intellectual,  moral,  and  social  condition 
of  the  people.  Attention  is  given  to  those  racial 
activities  which,  through  physical  heredity,  have 
been  potent  in  determining  the  psychical  attitudes 
of  the  child,  as  well  as  to  those  which  have  sur- 
vived as  ideas,  customs,  and  habits  of  thought, 
and  which  operate,  through  social  heredity,  in 


8  THE  PLACE  OF  INDUSTRIES 

shaping  our  attitudes  toward  industry  of  various 
forms. 

In  the  light  of  these  facts  regarding  racial  devel- 
opment and  what  is  known  of  the  successive  stages 
in  the  life  of  the  child,  some  of  the  more  important 
critical  periods  in  racial  and  in  industrial  develop- 
ment will  be  noted,  and  a  deeper  significance  of 
each  sought  by  reference  to  the  other,  as  well  as  to 
the  natural  and  social  environment  in  which  each 
is  set.  The  attempt  is  made  to  separate  the 
transient  from  the  permanent  factors  in  the  suc- 
cessive stages  of  an  activity,  and  to  make  use  of 
the  permanent  factors  in  such  a  way  as  to  secure 
a  principle  of  selection  and  a  guiding  principle 
which  will  be  of  service  in  determining  the  con- 
ditions of  education  in  the  successive  stages  of 
child  life. 

In  the  selection  of  materials  upon  which  to 
base  this  discussion,  it  may  seem  that  the  activi- 
ties of  primitive  life  have  received  an  undue  share 
of  attention.  But  if  it  is  taken  into  consideration 
that  civilization  is  only  as  yesterday  when  viewed 
with  reference  to  the  long  period  of  human  de- 
velopment ;  that  the  deep-seated,  permanent, 
and  abiding  impulses  are  the  result  of  racial 
experiences  before  man  had  emerged  from  the 
savage  stage ;  and  that  later  racial  activities  influ- 
ence psychical  attitudes  in  a  much  less  permanent 
and  effective  way,  this  method  will,  from  the 


IN  ELEMENTAR  Y  ED  UCA  TION  9 

point  of  view  of  one  who  would  interpret  the 
child's  interests  and  attitudes,  perhaps  be  justified. 
It  is  hoped,  moreover,  that  it  will  be  shown  to  be 
justified  from  the  point  of  view  of  the  course  of 
study. 

The  consideration  of  primitive  life,  then,  will 
have  a  twofold  purpose,  (i)  with  reference  to 
its  significance  in  interpreting  the  attitudes  of  the 
child,  and  (2)  with  reference  to  what  it  has  to 
yield,  especially  along  social  and  technological 
lines,  for  the  course  of  study.  Only  by  laying 
hold  of  both  our  physical  and  social  heredity  can 
we  be  fully  equipped  for  furthering  the  work  of 
education. 

Typical  selections  of  materials  from  later  stages 
of  culture  will  be  used  to  illustrate  the  character 
of  work  in  the  higher  grades.  To  organize  and 
adapt  such  material  to  purposes  of  elementary 
education  is  the  work  of  years  and  requires 
co-operative  effort.  In  this  place  little  more  can 
be  done  than  to  determine  the  principles  of  selec- 
tion and  to  illustrate  one  method  of  applica- 
tion. 

Advance  in  almost  every  line  of  culture  con- 
sists in  a  more  economical  use  of  forces  already 
applied,  or  in  the  harnessing  of  new  forces  to  a 
work  already  begun.  The  educational  process 
has  been  such  as  to  involve  a  great  amount  of 
waste.  The  strongest  forces  available  in  the 


10  THE  PLACE  OF  INDUSTRIES 

work  of  education  have  been  almost  untouched. 
In  a  few  cases  the  relation  of  the  child's  psy- 
chical attitudes  to  their  origin  and  to  organized 
social  life  have  been  recognized  sufficiently  to 
arouse  a  demand  in  the  educational  world  for 
literature  dealing  with  the  successive  stages  of 
racial  development ;  but  only  rarely  has  it  been 
recognized  that,  however  valuable  such  work 
may  be  as  one  factor  in  the  solution  of  the  prob- 
lem, and  however  much  the  child  may  enjoy 
such  stories,  to  stop  at  this  point  is  to  throw 
away  the  kernel  and  be  satisfied  with  the  husk. 
-  Such  an  application  substitutes  stories  about  activi- 
ties for  the  activities  themselves  ;  it  is  an  undue 
emphasis  upon  the  more  passive,  the  receptive 
powers  of  human  nature,  and  a  neglect  of  the 
more  active,  the  expressive  ones ;  it  is  a  stim- 
ulation of  the  imagination  without  a  provision 
for  a  corresponding  motor  manifestation.  How 
to  make  use  of  the  emotional  attitudes  of  the 
child  that  are  usually  allowed  to  discharge 
themselves  without  further  educational  signi- 
ficance than  that  they  afford  physical  develop- 
ment and  keep  alive  the  emotions  normal  to 
children  and  necessary  to  vigorous  growth  ;  how 
to  direct  them  in  such  a  way  as  to  afford  the 
child,  in  each  stage  of  his  development,  an 
experience  suited  to  his  capacity  in  the  funda- 
mental processes  by  which  society  in  all  ages 


IN  ELEMENTARY  EDUCA  TION  1 1 

sustains  itself;  how  to  transform  the  dramatic 
and  play  instincts  of  the  child  into  the  real  inter- 
ests of  adult  life  without  diminution  in  their 
vigor  and  purity — these  are  most  vital  problems 
in  education. 

Such  problems  will,  doubtless,  be  solved  in 
many  ways  in  future  times,  for  it  cannot  be  sup- 
posed that  any  solution  of  a  practical  question 
will  satisfy  even  all  the  people  of  any  one  period. 
The  solution  that  is  offered  at  this  time  is  based 
upon  the  fact  that  the  child,  in  the  successive 
stages  of  his  development,  always  has  important 
problems  of  his  own,  which,  if  worked  out,  en- 
larged, and  interpreted  in  the  light  of  similar  ex- 
periences of  the  race,  represent  a  process  which 
is  a  genuine  reconciliation  of  the  individual  and 
society. 

The  child's  problem  arises  in  a  present  diffi- 
culty that  he  realizes  with  reference  to  his  own 
natural  or  social  environment.  The  enriching  ma- 
terial, the  subject-matter,  may  be  selected  from 
the  racial  experiences  of  any  age.  That  which  de- 
termines its  fitness  for  the  purpose  is  not  the  age 
from  which  it  is  chosen,  but  the  psychical  attitude 
to  which  it  corresponds,  the  difficulty  of  the 
technique  involved,  the  complexity  of  organiza- 
tion which  it  represents.  Under  such  conditions 
the  past  is  no  longer  isolated  from  the  present  in 
the  mind  of  the  child.  It  is  an  organic  part  of 


12  THE  PLACE  OF  INDUSTRIES 

society  as  it  is  today.  It  is  a  fundamental  factor 
in  the  educational  process. 

The  history  of  industrial  activities  represents  a 
fundamental  factor  in  the  education  of  the  child, 
because  it  furnishes  a  series  of  typical  problems 
that  correspond  to  the  changes  in  his  own  atti- 
tudes. Because  the  past  still  lives  in  the  present, 
because  its  problems  are  simpler  statements  of 
the  most  fundamental  problems  of  the  present, 
the  history  of  the  industrial  activities  of  the  past 
is  especially  valuable  as  subject-matter  in  ele- 
mentary education.  That  it  is  used  no  more  than 
it  is  at  present  is  due  to  the  fact  that  no  one  has 
yet  given  sufficient  attention  to  the  subject  to 
organize  it  with  reference  to  present  educational 
needs. 

Nowhere  is  it  more  evident  th^t  a  thorough 
examination  of  one  line  of  culture  leads  one  into 
the  whole  of  life  than  in  such  an  investigation  as 
this.  At  each  step  one  is  brought  face  to  face 
with  problems  which  were  not  previously  thought 
to  be  a  part  of  the  subject  under  investigation.  It 
has  not  seemed  wise  to  thrust  these  altogether 
to  one  side,  for  by  so  doing  the  purpose  of  the 
investigation  would  be,  in  a  measure,  defeated. 
There  is  some  reason  to  believe  that  if,  at  times, 
what  was  considered  a  minor  matter  assumes 
a  greater  prominence,  it  is  a  factor  that  de- 
serves attention.  It  is  just  because  industry 


IN  ELEMENTARY  EDUCA  TION  1 3 

holds  so  many  factors  bound  up  in  it  that  it  is  of 
such  consequence  in  education.  How  these  vari- 
ous factors  become  free,  how  they  become  strong 
enough  to  set  up  ends  on  their  own  account,  how 
society  is  affected  by  these  changes — all  these 
questions  promise  rich  suggestions  with  reference 
to  present  problems. 

Such  an  examination  as  will  bring  to  view  the 
necessary  conditions  for  the  development  of 
industries  cannot  ignore  the  vital  relations  that 
they  sustain  to  the  sciences  and  the  arts.  They 
are  organic  parts  of  the  subject  and  should  be  rec- 
ognized as  such.  If,  in  many  places,  relations  of 
this  character  are  passed  by  with  little  notice  or 
even  ignored,  it  is  due  to  the  limitations  to 
which  one  is  subject  in  dealing  with  a  problem 
of  so  wide  a  scope,  and  not  to  the  failure  to  rec- 
ognize that  they  represent  essential  factors  in  the 
development  of  the  subject. 


CHAPTER   II. 

SIGNIFICANCE  OF  INDUSTRIAL   EPOCHS. 
THE  industrial  activities  of  the  race  have  been 

classified  by  economists  into  three  main  divisions. 

The  earliest  and  by  far  the  most  prolonged  period 

is  that  of  domestic  economy,  or  the  period  of 
•  house  industries,  which  lasted  from  the  earliest 

times  until  the  rise  of  the  towns  in  the  tenth  cen- 
.  tury.  The  second  is  the  period  of  town  economy, 
.  or  the  period  of  the  handicrafts,  lasting  from  the 

tenth    century   until    the    beginning   of   modern 

times.  The  third  is  the  period  of  national  econ- 
.  omy,  or  the  age  of  machinery  and  the  factory  in 

which  we  are  living. 

THE    HOUSE    INDUSTRIES,  OR    THE    PERIOD    OF 
DOMESTIC    ECONOMY. 

The  house  industries  are  especially  significant 
with  reference  to  elementary  education.  They 
represent  the  experience  of  the  race  in  industrial 
activities,  whether  private  or  public,  through  the 
long  ages  which  preceded  the  handicraft  period. 
They  are  important  as  factors  in  the  shaping  of 
the  early  forms  of  our  institutions,  and  give  a 
significance  to  much  that  would  be  meaningless 
apart  from  such  a  relation.  They  represent  the 

activities  which  were  instrumental  in  the  forma- 

• 

14 


IN  ELEMENTARY  EDUCA  TION  1 5 

tion  of  our  physical  co-ordinations  and  psychical 
attitudes.  In  relation  to  the  early  years  of  devel- 
opment they  are  much  more  important  than  the 
industrial  activities  of  later  periods,  because  they 
correspond  more  closely  to  the  psychical  attitudes 
of  the  child  than  do  the  activities  of  later  periods. 
The  activities  of  later  epochs  are  not  without 
their  influence  in  shaping  the  attitudes  of  the 
child,  but  they  operate  more  through  social  than 
through  physical  heredity. 

No  classification  of  the  stages  of  domestic 
industry  has  yet  been  made  that  is  not  open  to 
some  objection.  The  activities  of  human  life  are 
not  subject  to  a  rigid  classification.  The  more 
characteristic  features  of  racial  activities  may, 
however,  be  organized  under  such  terms  as  the 
hunting,  fishing,  pastoral,  and  agricultural  stages, 
the  age  of  metals,  trade  and  transportation,  the 
city-state,  and  the  feudal  system.  Such  terms 
serve  the  purpose  of  organizing  activities  which 
represent  an  increasing  development  of  mind 
and  a  corresponding  complexity  in  social  struc- 
ture. 

In  order  to  discover  what  place  industry  has 
had  in  these  successive  stages  of  racial  develop- 
ment it  may  be  well  to  consider  the  successive 
situations  in  which  man  found  himself,  the  na- 
ture of  his  equipment,  and  the  ways  in  which  he 
dealt  with  the  problems  at  hand. 


1 6  THE  PLACE  OF  INDUSTRIES 

THE    HUNTING   STAGE. 

From  what  the  researches  of  the  palaeontologist, 
the  geologist,  and  the  anthropologist  have  revealed 
we  are  able  to  reconstruct  in  outline  some  of  the 
more  characteristic  features  of  the  life  of  man  in 
western  Europe  during  the  mid-Pleistocene  period. 

Man  found  himself  in  a  dangerous  situation. 
The  cave-bear,  the  cave-lion,  the  sabre-toothed 
felis  (Machairodus  latidens),  the  big-nosed,  the 
small-nosed,  and  the  woolly  rhinoceros,  the 
hippopotamus,  and  the  mammoth  were  a  con- 
stant source  of  terror.  Packs  of  hyenas,  wolves, 
panthers,  and  wild-cats  were  always  near,  ready 
to  pounce  upon  their  prey  ;  and  even  the  urus, 
the  aurochs,  the  wild  boar,  and  the  wild  horse, 
though  usually  peaceable,  were  formidable  antag- 
onists when  aroused. 

It  is  quite  certain  that  all  these  beasts  were 
not  present  at  the  same  season,  for  some  of  them 
are  tropical,  while  others  are  arctic  species.  Mr. 
Boyd  Dawkins,  who  has  given  careful  attention 
to  these  problems,  believes  that  during  the  early 
part  of  the  mid-Pleistocene  period  the  different 
species  migrated  with  the  seasons. 

The  climate  of  this  early  period  was  character- 
ized by  less  extreme  temperature  in  summer 
and  in  winter  than  at  present,  and  it  was  very 
damp.  Toward  the  close  of  the  mid-Pleistocene 
period  it  became  much  colder. 


IN  ELEMENTAR  Y  ED  UCA  TION  1 7 

The  chief  forms  of  plant  life  were  evergreen 
trees,  of  which  the  spruce,  the  fir,  and  the  yew 
tree  were  most  abundant.  Trees  which  shed  their 
foliage  were  represented  by  the  oak  and  the 
birch.  The  rivers  were  bright  in  places  with  yel- 
low and  white  water-lilies,  and  their  banks  were 
shaded  by  laurels.  A  thick  undergrowth  of  the 
sloe,  the  original  form  of  the  wild  plum  tree, 
formed  thorny  thickets  which  were  places  of 
refuge  for  the  animals  that  were  in  need  of  pro- 
tection. The  marshes  offered  a  heavy  growth  of 
grass,  and  were  partly  covered  with  alders,  os- 
mund  royal,  and  marsh  trefoil.  Hornworts  and 
weeds  grew  in  the  pools.  Wild  peas  and  beans, 
stringy-rooted  carrots,  rutabagas,  and  turnips 
grew  in  the  open  spaces  on  the  hillsides.  The 
cabbage,  with  its  thick  leaves,  was  found,  but  it 
had  not  yet  developed  a  hard  head.  Wild  flax 
and  a  variety  of  wild  grasses  covered  the  tree- 
less plains  and  the  open  spaces  of  the  upland 
regions.  Such  was  the  environment  of  the  ear- 
liest people  in  western  Europe  of  which  we  have 
any  record.  What  was  man's  equipment  at  this 
time  ?  How  was  he  fitted  to  live  in  such  a  diffi- 
cult situation  ? 

The  change  from  organic  to  human  evolution 
was  a  gradual  one.  Such  animal  instincts  as 
could  lend  themselves  to  social  service  survived. 
Advance  from  this  point  consisted,  not  in  devel- 


1 8  THE  PLA  CE  OF  IND  US  TRIES 

oping  new  or  better  bodily  organs,  but  in  con- 
trolling them  and  in  supplementing  and  mul- 
tiplying their  power  by  the  use  of  external 
means. 

Various  scientists  and  artists  have  combined 
their  efforts  at  different  times  to  make  restora- 
tions of  the  skeletons  found  in  or  near  the  caves 
of  France.  Huxley  gives  the  following  descrip- 
tion of  them  : '  "  The  anatomical  characters  of  the 
skeletons  bear  out  conclusions  which  are  not  flat- 
tering to  the  appearance  of  the  owners.  They  are 
short  of  stature,  but  powerfully  built,  with  strong, 
curiously  curved  thigh  bones,  the  lower  ends  of 
which  are  so  fastened  that  they  must  have  walked 
with  a  bend  at  the  knees.  Their  long,  depressed 
skulls  had  very  strong  brow  ridges  ;  their  lower 
jaws,  of  brutal  depth  and  solidity,  sloped  away 
from  the  teeth  downward  and  backward,  in  con- 
sequence of  the  absence  of  that  specially  char- 
acteristic feature  of  the  higher  type  of  man,  the 
chin  prominence." 

Mr.  Boas  is  authority  for  the  statement  that 
the  savage  had  as  great  brain  capacity  as  civil- 
ized man  and  that  his  mental  processes  were  very 
similar.2  In  the  early  part  of  the  mid-Pleisto- 

*For  further  information  on  this  line  see  WORTHINGTON 
SMITH,  Man  the  Primeval  Savage,  Chap.  I,  and  H.  N.  HUTCH- 
INSON,  Prehistoric  Man  and  Beast. 

a FRANZ  BOAS,  "The  Mind  of  Primitive  Man,"  Journal  of 
American  Folk- Lore,  Vol.  XIV,  p.  I. 


IN  ELEMENTARY  EDUCA  TION  1 9 

cene  period  man  must  have  needed  his  hands 
for  purposes  of  locomotion,  for  until  he  had  con- 
quered fire  and  learned  to  manufacture  and  use 
weapons  the  trees  offered  him  the  safest  retreat 
from  his  numerous  enemies.  Man  of  this  period 
had  hands,  but  they  were  not  yet  free  for  the 
service  of  the  mind ;  he  was  destitute  of  all 
means  of  shelter  except  those  supplied  by 
nature;  he  had  no  assurance  of  a  regular  food 
supply;  he  was  without  clothing,  without  imple- 
ments of  labor,  and  the  weapons  of  offense  and 
defense. 

Compared  with  any  one  of  the  animals  man 
was  outranked  in  some  respect.  He  could  not 
run  as  fast  as  the  horse,  swim  as  well  as  the  fish, 
fly  as  the  eagle,  crawl  as  the  serpent,  or  ren- 
der himself  inconspicuous  by  changing  his  color 
to  correspond  with  the  natural  objects  with  which 
he  habitually  came  in  contact,  or  by  maintaining 
such  a  control  of  his  muscles  as  the  wild  calf 
and  other  animals  do  when  they  remain  motion- 
less in  order  to  be  unobserved.  He  was  not  pro- 
tected with  armor  as  the  turtle  is,  with  a  thick 
skin  as  the  rhinoceros,  with  a  heavy  coat  as 
the  mammoth,  or  with  feathers  and  fur  as  the 
birds  and  beasts  of  prey.  In  his  conflicts  he 
could  not  strike  as  the  cave-bear,  kick  as  the 
horse,  crush  as  the  rhinoceros,  gore  as  the  urus, 
or  pierce  and  rend  as  the  tiger.  In  the  exer- 


20  THE  PLACE  OF  INDUSTRIES 

cise  of  the  senses  and  in  muscular  force  he  was 
surpassed  by  many  of  them. 

In  what  then  did  man's  superiority  consist? 
How  was  he  able  to  exercise  control  over  such 
an  environment?  His  advantage  seems  to  have 
consisted  in  this:  he  had  developed  associative 
memory  to  a  degree  surpassing  that  of  any 
creature;  and,  although  physically  he  was  sur- 
passed in  some  respect  by  every  species  of  ani- 
mal,1 he  united  in  one  body  the  variety  of  move- 
ments and  methods  of  resistance  used  by  every 
species  of  animal.  The  special  superiority  of 
each  animal  had  been  gained  by  surrendering  the 
possibility  to  advance  along  other  lines.  Ani- 
mals have  paid  a  dear  price  for  their  special 
skill.  The  hope  of  the  future  seems  to  lie  in  the 
undifferentiated  form.  This  appears  to  be  true 
of  both  animal  and  human  life. 

Associative  memory  by  means  of  which  man 
is  able  to  inhibit  instinctive  action  and  so  se- 
cure an  advantage  that  a  former  experience  has 
shown  to  be  desirable,  and  an  erect  body  with 
free  hands  by  means  of  which  he  can  perform 
a  variety  of  activities,  are  the  points  of  lever- 
age by  means  of  which  man  has  lifted  himself 
above  other  forms  of  animal  life. 

The  body  is  thus  a  storehouse  of  the  principles 

fO.  T.  MASON,  "Primitive  Travel  and  Transportation," 
Smithsonian  Report  of  the  United  States  National  Museum,  1894, 
p.  257. 


IN  ELEMENTAR  Y  ED  UCA  TION  2  1 

of  invention  ;  x  it  furnishes  the  motive  power,  and 
contains  the  pattern  of  the  various  types  of  tools 
and  several  mechanical  principles  and  simple 
machines;  it  has  furnished  the  original  standards 
of  all  modes  of  measurement;  it  is  the  predom- 
inant factor  in  rhythm,  which  is  the  germ  of  the 
fine  arts;  it  has  furnished  the  activities  which 
form  the  root  words  of  our  language,  and  the 
meter  of  our  poetry;  and  its  activities  are  the 
basis  of  all  possible  expressions  of  emotional 
life. 

The  early  history  of  human  activity  is  an 
account  of  how  man,  by  means  of  associative 
memory  and  the  powers  of  his  body,  succeeded 
in  establishing  relations  with  his  environment. 
Whether  man  originally  was  a  social  or  solitary 
creature  is  not  settled  beyond  dispute.  That  all 


id,  1894,  P-  252:  "Jeremiah  Head,  in  speaking  of  the  mechani- 
cal principles  of  invention  actually  existing  in  the  body  of  man  and 
referring  to  some  involving  the  carrying  art,  says  that  the  human 
foot  contains  instances  of  the  first  and  second,  and  the  forearm  of 
the  third  order  of  lever.  The  patella  is  a  part  of  a  pulley;  there 
are  hinges  and  ball-and-socket  joints  with  lubricating  arrange- 
ments; lungs  are  bellows,  and  the  heart  is  a  combination  of 
force  pumps;  the  wrist,  ankle  and  spinal  vertebrae  form  univer- 
sal joints;  the  nerves  form  a  complete-  telegraph  system  with  up 
and  down  lines  and  a  central  exchange;  the  circulation  of  blood 
is  a  double  line  of  canals,  in  which  the  liquid  and  the  boats 
move  together,  making  the  circuit  twice  a  minute,  distributing 
supplies  wherever  required,  and  taking  up  return  loads  without 
stopping;  it  is  also  a  heat-distributing  apparatus,  establishing  a 
general  average,  as  engineers  endeavor  to  do  in  building." 


22  THE  PLACE  OF  INDUSTRIES 

other  interests  were  dominated  for  a  considerable 
time  by  the  need  of  the  individual  for  food  and 
protection  there  is  little  question.  That  for  a 
considerable  period  man  lived  chiefly  upon  veg- 
etable food  and  such  forms  of  animal  food  as  he 
could  obtain  without  weapons  is  undoubtedly 
true.  The  instinct  of  self-preservation  compelled 
him  to  seek  to  escape  conflict  with  the  beasts  of 
prey.  In  the  exploitation  of  his  environment  in 
search  of  food  it  was  necessary  for  him  to  be  alert 
in  recognizing  sights  and  sounds.  Noise  meant 
danger,  and  he  who  did  not  respond  to  this 
instinctively  was  liable  to  lose  his  life.  Reflec- 
tion, under  such  circumstances,  was  too  expensive 
a  form  of  specialization  to  be  indulged  in.  Fear 
at  this  time  was  a  virtue  necessary  to  the  pre- 
servation of  life. 

Previous  to  the  use  of  fire,  owing  to  the  burden 
placed  upon  the  hands  in  locomotion,  upon  the 
teeth  and  digestive  apparatus  in  grinding,  crush- 
ing, and  digesting  uncooked  food,  and  on 
account  of  the  expenditure  of  energy  in  main- 
taining the  necessary  temperature  of  the  body 
without  the  aid  of  clothing  and  fire,  man  had 
little  surplus  energy  upon  which  to  draw  for 
satisfying  other  needs  than  those  directly  rela- 
ted to  gathering  food  and  escaping  from  the 
attacks  of  wild  animals.  Yet  even  in  this  age  he 
began  the  work  of  supplementing  the  power  of 


IN  ELEMENTARY  EDUCA  TION  2$ 

his  body  by  means  of  the  simplest  implements 
and  weapons. 

In  this  earliest  period  of  which  we  have  records 
man  established  destructive  relations  with  plants 
and  the  smaller  animals.  He  sought  to  avoid  con- 
flict with  the  larger  animals ;  yet  he  could  not 
help  being  curious  about  them,  for  curiosity  was 
a  necessary  quality  in  such  an  environment  as 
the  one  in  which  he  lived.  The  curiosity,  the 
fear,  and  the  wonder  with  which  he  regarded 
these  creatures  undoubtedly  were  serviceable  in 
the  conquest  of  fire  which  was  first  regarded  as 
a  wild  beast.  The  significance  of  this  conquest 
is  inestimable,  and  it  is  not  strange  that  people 
worshipped  the  fire  for  many  ages,  and  that,  in 
later  times,  the  unknown  hero  who  made  the  con- 
quest was  thought  of  as  a  god.  The  change  in 
industrial  and  social  life  wrought  by  this  con- 
quest ought,  even  in  present  times,  to  place  the 
conqueror  high  in  the  ranks  of  industrial  heroes. 

Sympathetic  relations  with  fire  once  estab- 
lished, social  life  is  assured.  The  protection  thus 
afforded  from  the  attacks  of  wild  beasts  was  suf- 
ficient to  relieve  man  of  a  great  strain  as  well  as 
to  free  his  hands  for  a  higher  service.  Under 
such  conditions  it  was  possible  to  accumulate  a 
greater  surplus  of  nervous  energy  than  before, 
which  could  be  drawn  upon  for  various  purposes. 
Although  in  many  respects  the  individual  still 


2  4  THE  PLA  CE  OF  IND  USTRIES 

supplied  his  own  needs,  the  use  of  fire  involved 
the  beginning  of  the  division  of  labor  and 
co-operative  action.  The  women  naturally  cared 
for  the  children  and  stayed  near  the  fire.  Be- 
cause they  were  not  free  to  travel  far  from  the 
fireplace,  they  gathered  such  plant  foods  as  were 
available  and  attended  to  the  household  duties. 
The  men  were  free  to  engage  in  a  more  vigorous 
and  strenuous  life.  The  presence  of  a  common 
enemy  aroused  common  action,  which  required 
more  thought  than  individual  action  and  was  by 
no  means  achieved  without  many  tentative  efforts. 
The  successful  conflict  with  wild  beasts  was 
apt  to  exhaust  the  stored-up  nervous  energy,  but 
it  provided  food  and  hence  leisure  for  some  time. 
Abundance  of  food  and  leisure  resulted  in  the 
accumulation  of  new  stores  of  energy,  which 
were  bound  to  find  expression.  Such  animals  as 
the  dog  and  the  cat  can  remain  in  a  passive  con- 
dition for  long  periods,  but  with  the  human  be- 
ing it  is  impossible.  The  stored-up  energy  must 
find  expression.  It  is  in  such  periods  as  these 
that  we  find  activities  similar  in  kind  to  those  per- 
formed at  other  times,  but  different  in  their  end. 
Free  from  the  conditions  imposed  by  the  real  hunt, 
the  savage  plays  he  is  hunting,  and  we  have  the 
beginning  of  the  dance.  In  the  real  hunt  men 
are  united  by  a  common  need  and  participate  in 
a  common  emotional  reaction;  in  the  dramatic 


IN  ELEMENTAR  Y  ED  UCA  TION  2  5 

representation  of  the  hunt  they  are  aroused  by  a 
common  feeling  and  purpose,  and  spontaneously 
respond  to  the  same.  The  rhythmic  response  of 
the  individual  receives  stimulus  from  that  of  his 
fellows,  and,  through  suggestion,  becomes  modi- 
fied until  each  one  surrenders  himself  to  the  com- 
mon feeling  through  which  the  individuality  of 
each  becomes  fused  in  that  of  the  group. 

At  other  times  man  may  expend  his  surplus 
energy  in  the  search  for  bright  and  shining  ob- 
jects, which  he  may  pierce  and  string,  and  we 
have  the  beginning  of  dress  and  decoration  ;  or 
he  may  trace  in  the  sand,  or  on  the  walls  of 
his  cave,  or  on  the  bones  of  animals  he  has 
slain,  mere  lines  at  haphazard,  until  by  a  happy 
co-ordination  he  produces  a  semblance  to  some 
familiar  form,  and  we  have  the  beginning  of 
drawing.  It  would  be  easy  to  multiply  instances 
of  this  kind ;  but  these  are  sufficient  to  illus- 
trate the  fact  that  the  beginnings  of  art  depend 
upon  leisure  and  an  accumulation  of  energy,  and 
that  the  art  instinct,  which  is  bound  up  at  first  with 
the  workmanship  instinct,  becomes  free  only  as 
less  strenuous  conditions  of  life  afford  room  for 
its  manifestation.  The  pleasure  afforded  on  ac- 
count of  the  intellectual  perception  of  likeness 
and  the  emotional  feeling  of  power  stimulate  to 
further  activity  as  opportunity  is  afforded,  and 
the  action  passes  from  the  domain  of  the  acci- 


26  THE  PLACE  OF  INDUSTRIES 

dental  and  becomes  more  and  more  subservient 
to  the  dominant  desires  of  the  individual. 

The  fact  that  hunting  peoples  surpass  pastoral 
and  agricultural  peoples  in  representative  art  is 
largely  due  to  the  fact  that  among  hunting  tribes 
every  man  is  obliged  to  hunt  and  to  provide  him- 
self with  weapons.  In  the  hunting  stage  every  one 
had  to  be  a  good  hunter  and  a  good  handworker 
or  die.  The  co-ordinations  made  use  of  in  his  crafts 
supplied  the  necessary  skill  for  the  early  drafts- 
man and  carver ;  the  intimate  acquaintance  with 
animals  made  necessary  by  his  mode  of  life  de- 
veloped a  sympathetic  interest  in  animal  forms; 
hence  it  is  not  strange  that  the  drawings  and 
carvings  of  the  cavemen  of  the  late  Pleistocene 
period  have  never  been  surpassed  among  nature 
peoples.  Neither  is  it  surprising  that  the  arts 
which  require  considerable  leisure  were  not  culti- 
vated. 

Social  life  reacted  upon  industrial  activities 
in  various  ways.  Even  in  cases  where  the  in- 
dividual supplied  his  own  needs  the  mere  pres- 
ence of  his  associates  was  sufficient  to  give  a 
richer  meaning  to  his  own  work.  It  no  longer 
meant  the  mere  satisfaction  of  physical  needs. 
The  need  of  social  approval  was  felt,  and  efforts 
to  exhibit  self  so  as  to  gain  that  approval  were 
aroused.  The  greatest  social  need  of  the  age 
was  for  courage,  daring,  muscular  strength,  sup- 


IN  ELEMENTARY  ED UCA  TION  2 7 

pleness,  alertness,  endurance,  and  power  to  secure 
co-operative  action.  He  who  could  prove  that  he 
possessed  such  traits  found  favor  with  his  people. 
It  is  this  fact  that  makes  the  trophy  of  a  success- 
ful encounter  significant.  This,  too,  may  ac- 
count for  the  method  of  showing  superiority  by 
means  of  boasting,  or  by  taunting  the  enemy,  or 
of  attracting  attention  by  means  of  scarification 
or  ornament.  Anything  that  could  secure  fa- 
vorable attention  to  himself  from  members  of  his 
group,  and  particularly  from  those  of  the  oppo- 
site sex,  was  quickly  appropriated. 

Any  one  who  has  taken  the  pains  to  study  the 
subject  of  primitive  decoration  knows  that  in  • 
many  cases  the  ornaments  must  have  cost  many  ' 
days  of  what  we  should  call  tedious,  persistent 
effort.  What  was  it  that  sustained  the  savage  in 
such  activities  as  these  ?  It  was  the  sustaining 
power  of  an  idea.  The  savage  had  an  ideal 
which  he  was  striving  to  realize.  He  was  creat- 
ing something.  He  was  not  engaged  in  pro- 
ducing something  foreign  to  himself,  but  that 
which  was  considered  as  much  a  part  of  him  as 
one  of  the  organs  of  his  body.  He  was  increasing. . 
his  own  power,  he  was  enhancing  his  personality. 
This  was  what  sustained  him  as  he  worked.  This 
was  what  stimulated  him  to  renewed  effort  in 
carrying  to  completion  a  work  which,  deprived  of 
these  personal  and  social  associations,  would  have 


28  THE  PLACE  OF  INDUSTRIES 

been  intolerable.  The  self-exhibitive  instinct 
thus  appears  to  have  been  one  of  the  most 
potent  forces  in  the  training  of  man  to  persistent, 
intellectual  control  of  his  powers  through  the  use 
of  his  hands. 

As  man  increased  his  power  by  refraining  from 
purely  instinctive  action  and  by  making  use  of 
his  experiences  in  devising  more  and  more 
indirect  modes  of  reaction ;  as  he  came  more 
under  the  influence  of  social  forces,  he  began  to 
dominate  his  environment  to  such  an  extent  that 
the  minds  of  the  animals  were  affected  by  it. 
Man's  cunning  thus  developed  animal  cunning. 
It  is  probable  that  this  change  took  place  in 
the  grass-eating  animals  as  early  as  the  begin- 
ning of  the  late  Pleistocene  period.  At  this 
time  the  arctic  mammalia  took  possession  of 
the  land  and  occupied  it  in  company  with  those 
forms  that  characterized  the  preceding  age,  with 
the  exception  of  the  Machairodus  latidens  and  the 
big-nosed  rhinoceros,  both  of  which  had  become 
extinct,  and  those  living  species  that  migrated  at 
this  time  on  account  of  the  intense  cold.  There 
was  thus  a  change  in  the  situation  brought  about 
by  the  intense  cold,  the  absence  of  so  great  a 
supply  of  vegetable  food,  the  presence  of  new 
animal  forms,  the  extinction  or  migration  of 
others,  and  the  change,  in  the  habits  of  those  that 
remained,  due  to  the  cunning  of  man. 


IN  ELEMENTARY  EDUCA TION  29 

The  increasing  complexity  in  the  situation 
made  it  necessary  for  man  to  find  new  resources 
within  himself  by  means  of  which  he  could  cope 
with  the  new  and  difficult  problems.  There  was 
greater  need  of  craft,  foresight,  endurance,  and 
the  speed  that  can  result  only  from  careful  atten- 
tion to  means  of  preserving  the  suppleness  of  the 
limbs.1  And  man  responded  to  the  demands 
of  the  age.  Each  new  difficulty  was  removed 
or  lessened  by  the  invention  of  traps,  the 
improvement  of  weapons  and  other  devices  by 
means  of  which  the  warfare  upon  animals  could 
be  maintained ;  the  earth  was  rendered  more 
habitable  by  the  removal  of  the  more  formidable 
antagonists ;  man  learned  to  carry  on  more  com- 
plicated co-operative  activities  made  necessary 
by  the  complexity  of  the  situation ;  and  he 
made  use  of  his  leisure  time  in  developing  the 
industries  and  arts.  Such  forward  steps  consti- 
tute the  history  of  the  intellectual  advance  that 
man  made  at  this  time.  They  reveal  the  path  by 
which  man  learned  to  modify  his  instinctive  reac- 
tions by  the  use  of  associative  memory  under  the 
impulse  of  the  social  needs  of  the  age  in  which 
he  lived.  Physical  needs  alone  could  have  been 
satisfied  without  so  great  an  effort.  It  was  the 

1  PROFESSOR  W.  I.  THOMAS  has  called  attention  to  the  signifi- 
cance of  this  fact  in  relation  to  the  division  of  labor  between  the 
sexes,  in  an  article  entitled  "Sexes  in  Primitive  Industry,"  pub- 
lished in  the  American  Journal  of  Sociology,  Vol.  IV,  p.  474. 


30  THE  PLACE  OF  INDUSTRIES 

social  needs  which  stimulated  man  to  his  bravest 
deeds  as  well  as  to  those  quiet,  tedious  activities 
necessary  in  order  to  manufacture  the  weapons, 
implements,  and  ornaments  without  which  it  was 
impossible  to  gain  the  approval  of  his  group. 

A  superficial  examination  of  the  activities  of 
the  age  may  seem  to  warrant  the  conclusion  that 
it  was  an  age  characterized  by  the  destructive 
spirit.  A  deeper  study  reveals  the  fact  that  in 
its  outcome,  at  least,  it  was  constructive.  Viewed 
with  reference  to  the  social  need  of  the  age 
destruction  was  more  significant  than  construc- 
tion ;  but  then,  as  now,  destruction  and  construc- 
tion were  but  the  two  phases  of  one  activity. 

Although  man  of  the  hunting  stage  had  not 
reduced  his  knowledge  to  intellectual  formulas, 
he  had  made  considerable  progress  in  the 
sciences  and  the  arts.  He  had  gained  this 
knowledge  under  the  impulse  of  his  need  of 
food,  protection,  shelter,  and  clothing.  He  was 
familiar  with  the  habits  of  all  the  wild  animals  of 
his  locality,  and  with  most  of  the  useful  and 
poisonous  plants.  He  was  familiar  with  the 
topography  of  the  various  regions  in  which  he 
lived  and  with  the  special  advantages  afforded 
by  each.  He  knew  the  signs  of  the  weather  and 
the  relation  of  the  changing  position  of  some  of 
the  heavenly  bodies  to  coming  changes  in  his 
own  activities.  He  had  learned  the  limitations 


IN  ELEMENTAR  Y  ED  UCA  TION  3 1 

and  the  possibilities  of  the  raw  materials  with 
which  he  worked,  how  to  select  the  best  materials 
for  his  weapons,  implements,  and  utensils,  and 
how  to  manufacture  and  manipulate  the  same. 
He  had  learned  how  to  submit  himself  to  a  leader 
in  time  of  danger  and  how  to  take  the  lead.  He 
had  learned  how  to  live  in  sympathetic  relations 
with  members  of  his  own  clan  and  how  to  gain 
the  social  approval  of  the  members  of  his  group. 

THE    FISHING    STAGE. 

The  earliest  fishing  peoples  of  whom  we  have 
any  records  are  those  whose  history  has  been 
preserved  in  the  kitchen-middens  or  shell 
mounds,  which  are  still  found  along  the  coasts 
of  the  Atlantic  as  well  as  along  the  lower  courses 
of  many  rivers  tributary  to  that  ocean.  These 
people  are  usually  placed  in  the  epoch  immedi- 
ately following  the  Pleistocene  period,  and  they 
represent  the  earliest  people  of  the  age  fre- 
quently characterized  as  the  Polished  Stone  Age. 

The  climate  had  become  more  like  what  it  is 
today.  All  the  larger  forms  of  animal  life  which 
had  characterized  the  preceding  age  were  now 
extinct  with  the  exception  of  the  Irish  deer, 
which  was  becoming  rare.  The  arctic  mam- 
malia had  withdrawn  to  the  north,  and  the  forms 
which  have  existed  either  wild  or  in  a  state  of 
domestication  from  that  time  till  within  com- 
paratively recent  times  prevailed. 


32  THE  PLACE  OF  INDUSTRIES 

The  situation  at  this  time  was  less  dangerous 
than  during  the  Pleistocene  period,  owing  to  the 
destruction  of  the  more  formidable  of  the  wild 
animals  and  the  enlistment  in  man's  cause  of  the 
dog,  which  was  domesticated  during  this  period. 
The  problems  of  the  hunter  of  this  period  were 
similar  in  kind  to  those  of  the  Eskimo  before  the 
introduction  of  improved  implements.  In  fowl- 
ing and  fishing  man  had  new  problems  to  solve. 
In  hunting  the  conflict  was  with  the  animals  that 
lived  only  on  the  land,  but  in  fowling  and  fish-  ' 
ing  man  had  to  deal  with  animals  that  inhabited 
elements  inaccessible  to  him.  How  man  learned 
to  lengthen  his  arms  by  means  of  poles,  sub- 
stitute pieces  of  bone  or  hard  wood  in  place 
of  fingers,  rude  rakes  for  hands,  dip-nets  in 
place  of  the  scoop  made  with  the  two  hands, 
hooks  in  place  of  the  bent  fingers,  fish-weirs  and 
stones  in  place  of  natural  means  of  enclosing  fish 
in  a  shallow  place ;  how  he  learned  to  wall  in 
with  stones  large  flats,  and  so  pen  in  the  fish 
brought  in  by  the  tides ;  how  he  made  fish-weirs 
in  the  shallow  waters — these  are  some  of  the 
problems  that  man  dealt  with  in  the  simplest 
stages  of  life  by  the  sea. 

Even  after  man  learned  to  hunt  the  animals  on 
the  land  and  catch  the  fish  in  the  water  he  was 
unable  to  capture  the  birds  that  lived  on  the  sea. 
They  presented  to  him  a  complex  problem,  for 


IN  ELEMENTARY  EDUCA  TION  33 

they  could  walk  or  run  on  the  land,  fly  in  the  air, 
and  swim  in  the  water.  Buff  on,  the  great  naturalist, 
wrote  that  if  the  wild  duck  had  not  been  obliged 
to  come  to  the  land  in  nesting  time  it  probably 
would  have  escaped  from  man,  if  not  altogether, 
yet  for  a  much  longer  time  than  it  did.  Man 
early  learned  to  take  advantage  of  the  young 
ducks  of  the  marshes  before  they  had  learned  to 
fly ;  he  learned  to  swim  below  the  surface  of  the 
water,  breathing  through  a  hollow  reed  while  he 
grasped  and  drew  one  after  another  of  the  unsus- 
pecting fowls  beneath  the  water ;  he  learned  to 
out-wit  them  with  smoke,  baits,  and  traps,  and, 
later,  after  he  had  domesticated  some  of  them, 
with  their  own  kind.  In  so  doing  he  grappled 
with  problems  that  made  demands  for  less  force 
but  more  foresight,  more  cunning  than  had  been 
necessary  before. 

The  shoals  of  deep-sea  fish  that  came  to  the 
shores  or  up  the  rivers  in  the  spawning  season 
and  later  disappeared,  tempted  man  to  follow. 
The  desire  to  find  access  to  these  stores  of  food 
supply  added  its  weight  to  curiosity  already 
reaching  out  to  comprehend  the  mysteries  of  the 
winds,  the  waves,  and  the  changing  character  of 
the  ever-present  sea. 

An  account  of  the  ways  in  which  man  utilized 
his  own  body,  and  the  suggestions  of  his  en- 
vironment in  selecting  and  manufacturing  devices 


34  THE  PLACE  OF  INDUSTRIES 

by  means  of  which  he  made  himself  master  of  the 
sea  and  the  fowls  of  the  air,  is  a  chapter  not  only 
in  the  history  of  industry  but  in  the  acquisition 
of  human  freedom. 

In  general  the  activities  of  this  period  may  be 
characterized  as  less  dominated  by  physical  force, 
and  affording  a  larger  place  for  the  play  of  the 
mind  in  more  subtle  fields.  The  life  of  the  hunter 
was  spasmodic,  irregular :  that  of  the  fisher- 
man was  more  regular,  more  continuous,  more 
characterized  by  co-operative  action.  So  im- 
portant was  the  dance  as  a  means  of  securing 
union  of  effort,  so  close  was  the  relation  between 
the  co-ordinated  movements  there  represented 
and  those  in  the  actual  operation,  that  the  per- 
son who  was  so  careless  as  to  make  a  mistake  in 
the  dance  met  with  the  severest  disapproval  of 
his  group.  Few  of  the  activities  of  the  fisher- 
man could  be  carried  out  successfully  without 
co-operative  action.  Co-operation  in  deep-sea 
expeditions  was  impossible  without  careful  or- 
ganization, which  was  made  possible  only  through 
the  unifying  power  of  rhythm.  The  man  who 
could  feel  the  situation  in  advance,  and  who 
could  represent  it  in  the  form  of  a  dance,  was 
the  industrial  chief,  who  led  in  the  adventurous 
undertakings  on  the  deep  sea. 

Relations  once  established  with  the  inhabitants 
of  the  land,  the  sea,  and  the  air,  a  more  steady 


IN  ELEMENTAR  Y  ED  UCA  TION  3  5 

supply  of  food  was  possible  than  before;  a  greater 
surplus  of  energy  was  available.  This  was  largely 
utilized  in  the  manufacture  of  fishing  tackle  of 
various  kinds,  boats,  rafts,  basketry,  pottery,  and 
in  the  invention  of  different  forms  of  the  dance, 
which  had  not  yet  set  free  poetry  and  song,  and 
which  had  not  itself  become  free  from  the  con- 
trolling power  of  industrial  activities. 

Just  as  the  hunter  read  into  the  natural  features 
of  his  environment  the  meaning  of  his  own  activi- 
ties and  gave  us  the  germs  of  our  hunting  myths, 
so  the  fisherman  interpreted  the  natural  life  about 
him  in  the  light  of  his  own  experience,  and  gave 
to  the  world  the  beginnings  of  sea-lore.  The 
subtlety  of  the  elements  with  which  he  had  to 
deal  was  not  without  its  influence  in  determining 
the  character  of  his  thought  and  feeling.  The 
ever-present  yet  ever-changing  sea  and  sky  were 
real  lessons  in  the  philosophy  of  life. 

THE    PASTORAL    STAGE. 

The  transition  from  the  hunting  and  fishing 
stages  to  the  pastoral  stage  is  a  gradual  one.  The 
situation  differs  with  local  conditions,  but  there 
are  always  permanent  factors  operating  to  induce 
man  to  make  the  change.  The  hunting  life 
becomes  more  and  more  strenuous  as  the  wild 
animals  develop  more  and  more  cunning  under 
the  influence  of  man's  presence.  Even  though 
man  in  the  Pleistocene  period  succeeded  in  rid- 


36  THE  PLACE  OF  INDUSTRIES 

ding  the  earth  of  the  most  terrible  of  his  antago- 
nists, beasts  of  prey  still  survive  and  prey  upon 
the  more  gentle  grass-eating  animals,  and  even 
make  attacks  upon  man  himself.  The  grass- 
eating  animals,  which  form  the  food  supply  of 
these  creatures  as  well  as  the  larger  part  of  the 
food  of  man,  become  more  alert,  more  skilful  in 
eluding  their  enemies  ;  but  in  spite  of  this  their 
numbers  become  reduced.  The  natural  increase 
in  population,  together  with  that  caused  by 
invading  tribes,  tends  to  reduce  the  number  of 
animals  to  such  a  degree  that  it  is  no  longer 
possible  for  a  given  area  to  support  the  life  of 
the  beasts  of  prey  and  the  human  inhabitants, 
who  depend  upon  hunting  as  their  chief  means 
of  subsistence. 

Parallel  to  the  changes  already  noted  there 
take  place  changes  which  represent  more  and 
more  complex  methods  of  hunting.  Traps  by 
means  of  which  animals  may  be  deceived  and 
captured  alive  are  invented.  Frequently,  no 
doubt,  young  animals  are  caught  in  traps  and 
taken  home  for  pets  for  the  little  ones.  These, 
which  remain  in  the  care  of  the  women  and 
children  for  the  most  part,  are  found  useful  as 
food  in  times  of  scarcity.  The  advantage  of  the 
presence  of  animals  in  a  semi-domesticated  or 
domesticated  state  is  perceived  and  remembered. 
That  which  took  place  by  an  accident  or  for  the 


A  DEEP-SEATED  AND  PERMANENT  INSTINCT. 
(WORK  OF  MISS  L.  M.  CHILLINGWORTH,  NEW  HAVEN,  CONN.) 


IN  ELEMENTAR  Y  ED  UCA  TION  3  7 

sake  of  pleasure,  finally  becomes  a  serious  busi- 
ness. 

Man  finds  that  by  establishing  sympathetic 
relations  with  the  grass-eating  animals  he  can  live 
on  a  smaller  area  than  by  hunting  them.  These 
relations,  however,  bring  him  face  to  face  with  a 
whole  range  of  new  problems  which  require  more 
forethought  and  regularity  than  were  necessary 
before.  When  man  lived  as  a  hunter  or  a  fisher 
the  animals  that  furnished  his  food  cared  for 
themselves.  He  merely  found  ways  of  capturing 
them  as  he  needed  a  supply.  Now  he  has  a 
whole  range  of  duties,  which  bring  little  return 
for  some  time.  The  end. of  his  action  is  more 
distant.  It  is  no  wonder  that  many  tribes,  dis- 
couraged in  their  efforts  to  find  good  pastures 
and  water  for  their  flocks,  and  in  futile  attempts 
to  protect  them  from  wild  animals,  hostile  tribes, 
and  the  winter's  cold,  revert  to  their  previous 
mode  of  life.  But  it  is  equally  apparent  that  the 
tribe  that  meets  these  difficulties  successfully,  that 
increases  in  wealth  by  the  rapid  increase  of  flocks 
and  herds,  as  well  as  by  the  spoils  of  war,  will 
become  attached  to  this  mode  of  life — a  life  that 
offers  sufficient  play  for  the  conflict  interest  to 
afford  satisfactory  emotional  reactions,  and  that 
affords,  for  the  first  time,  a  regular  supply  of 
nourishing  food  and  a  great  deal  of  leisure  time 

It  is  not  accidental  that  art  flourished  in  the 


38  THE  PLACE  OF  INDUSTRIES 

pastoral  period.  Music  and  musical  instruments, 
which  were  used  for  purposes  of  signals  and  for 
regulating  rhythmical  movements  of  the  hunting 
and  fishing  dances,  now  made  a  rapid  advance  ; 
and,  although  they  did  not  become  entirely  free 
from  the  industrial  activities  of  the  times,  they 
were  not  so  distinctly  subservient  to  utilitarian 
needs  as  before.  It  was  during  this  period  that 
the  story-teller,  the  dancer,  and  the  singer 
emerged  from  the  mass  in  response  to  the  need 
of  a  more  adequate  means  of  securing  satisfac- 
tory emotional  reactions. 

It  was  at  this  time  that  the  arts  of  spinning, 

A  weaving,  dyeing  and  the  subsidiary  activities  con- 

»  nected  with  the  textile  art  were  developed.     The 

•  skill  acquired  in  the  hunting  and  fishing  stages 

with  sinews  and  various  forms  of  woody  fibers, 

when  applied  to  wool  and  flax  resulted  in  greatly 

improved  methods  of  clothing,  in  a  higher  degree 

of  skill,  and  in  a  development  of  art  forms  in 

which  music,   poetry,  and  the  dance   were  still 

intimately  associated. 

Much  of  the  surplus  energy  afforded  by  the 
easy  life  of  the  developed  pastoral  stage  was 
expended  in  warfare.  The  accumulation  of 
property  offered  a  sufficient  material  inducement, 
but  this  was  subordinate  to  the  pressing  needs  of 
a  strong,  emotional  reaction  which  the  ordinary 
duties  in  the  tranquil  life  of  the  shepherd  did  not 


IN  ELEMENTARY  EDUCA  TION  39 

afford.  In  so  far  as  the  destructive  spirit  of 
warfare  prevailed,  it  interfered  with  the  develop- 
ment of  broad  sympathies,  which  are  necessary  to 
the  highest  manifestation  of  art;  but  it  fulfilled 
a  social  service  in  so  far  as  it  secured  a  necessary 
means  of  recreation,  and  organized  society  into 
larger  and  larger  political  groups.  It  was 
through  war  that  society  became  organized,  that 
political  institutions  were  established.  Even 
though  these  institutions  never  attained  stability 
in  the  pastoral  stage,  the  framework  was  laid,  so 
that  later  tribes  could  utilize  the  results  achieved 
in  the  upbuilding  of  more  permanent  and  better 
organized  societies. 

Perhaps  the  most  valuable  contribution  that 
this  stage  of  culture  has  made  to  the  world  is  its 
humanizing  element.  This  was  developed  partly 
by  the  need  of  sympathetic  relations  with  the 
domestic  animals,  and  partly  by  the  spirit  of 
reverence  and  veneration  that  was  fostered  by 
the  patriarchal  family,  which  was  formed  in 
response  to  the  centralizing  tendency  of  the 
activities  of  the  pastoral  life.  The  young  hunter 
depended  largely  upon  his  own  efforts  and  could 
easily  withdraw  himself  from  his  group,  for  a 
time  at  least.  The  shepherd  boy  was  bound  to 
his  flocks.  He  had  no  means  of  support  outside 
of  the  family  ruled  by  a  patriarch. 

Industrial    dependence    undoubtedly     was    a 


40  THE  PLACE  OF  INDUSTRIES 

potent  factor  in  developing  a  sense  of  social 
dependence.  Both  fostered  a  peaceful  life  within 
the  group.  Even  though  the  pastoral  peoples 
were  undoubtedly  hostile  to  strangers,  their 
mode  of  life  developed  sympathetic  relations 
within  the  group.  The  kindness  of  old  age  found 
its  counterpart  in  the  gentleness  that  it  fos- 
tered in  the  care  of  the  young.  The  establish- 
ment of  these  sympathetic  relations  at  home  and 
hostile  ones  abroad  secured  in  social  and  political 
life  a  co-operative  action  and  an  organization  of 
effort,  which  could  not  have  been  secured  by  the 
industrial  activities  alone. 

THE  AGRICULTURAL  STAGE. 

While  still  in  the  hunting  stage  considerable 
progress  had  been  made  in  agriculture  by  women. 
The  irregular  life  of  the  time,  however,  seriously 
interfered  with  its  development,  and  often  the 
crop  had  to  be  left  before  it  was  ripe  for  the 
harvest.  Although  developed  agriculture  is  found 
in  the  fertile  lowlands  it  was  not  in  such  places 
that  it  originated.  It  is  probable  that  the 
hunters  on  the  wooded  hills,  on  account  of  the 
pressure  of  the  population,  depended  more  and 
more  upon  the  exertion  of  the  women  to  eke  out 
an  existence,  and  that  the  terrace  gardens  whose 
remains  are  still  found  on  many  hillsides  repre- 
sent the  first  organized  attempt  to  maintain  soci- 
ety by  the  cultivation  of  plants. 


IN  ELEMENTAR  Y  ED  UCA  TION  4 1 

In  many  cases  the  domestication  of  animals  by 
the  men  and  the  cultivation  of  plants  by  the  women 
developed  side  by  side.  But  unless  the  men  of 
the  tribe  were  strong  enough  to  protect  their  ani- 
mals from  the  raids  of  the  strongest  shepherds, 
they  were  obliged  sooner  or  later  to  take  upon 
themselves  the  work  of  the  women.  By  bringing 
to  woman's  work  the  superior  technological  skill 
developed  in  the  contests  with  wild  animals  during 
the  hunting  stage,  and  by  being  able  to  specialize 
to  an  extent  that  woman  has  never  been  able  to 
do,  man  was  able  to  get  far  greater  results  from 
the  cultivation  of  the  soil  than  had  been  possible 
under  conditions  that  had  prevailed  previous  to 
this  time.  Agriculture  was  no  longer  one  of  the 
many  occupations  of  woman ;  it  had  become  the 
principal  occupation  of  man. 

Where  conditions  were  such  as  to  secure  the 
necessary  protection,  the  agricultural  life  was  of 
great  educational  value  to  the  race.  Protection 
was  often  gained  by  establishing  settlements 
upon  islands,  naturally  fortified  peninsulas,  barri- 
caded marshes  and,  finally,  resort  was  had  to  pile- 
dwellings  erected  upon  the  lakes.  It  is  significant 
that  fortification  appeared  with  the  settled  agri- 
cultural life.  Agriculture  required  much  thought 
and  severe  bodily  exertion.  The  products  of 
such  labor  were  too  precious  to  be  left  unpro- 
tected. The  hunter,  the  fisherman,  or  the  shep- 


42  THE  PLACE  OF  INDUSTRIES 

herd,  if  driven  from  one  site,  could  find  many 
others  equally  satisfactory ;  but  the  farmer,  who 
put  his  thought  and  his  labor  into  the  soil, 
valued  it  too  highly  to  yield  it  without  a 
struggle.  Because  the  shepherd's  life  cost  him 
so  little  bodily  exertion,  because  he  could  in- 
crease his  property  so  rapidly,  he  esteemed  it 
lightly ;  but  it  was  very  different  with  the  man 
who  tilled  the  soil.  He  not  only  expended  mus- 
cular force  but  he  busied  himself  in  discovering 
nature's  secrets.  He  had  to  learn  how  to  prepare 
the  soil  in  the  best  way  with  the  crude  tools  at 
his  disposal;  he  had  to  learn  the  best  time  to 
sow  the  seed  and  what  seeds  would  grow  rapidly 
enough  to  mature  before  the  early  frosts ;  he  had 
to  invent  ways  in  which  to  protect  the  growing 
crop  from  birds  and  beasts  and  from  the  thought- 
less members  of  his  own  clan,  who  were  with 
difficulty  prevented  from  consuming  the  crop  be- 
fore it  was  ready  for  the  harvest.  He  had  also  to 
invent  tools  and  to  learn  how  to  utilize  animals 
as  a  motive  power  in  work ;  he  had  to  invent 
harnesses,  evolve  carts,  measure  time,  and  regu- 
late consumption  as  well  as  production. 

The  conditions  which  man  had  to  take  into 
consideration  in  agriculture  were  more  complex 
than  in  any  other  mode  of  life  yet  attempted. 
Plants,  unlike  animals,  cannot  be  depended  upon 
to  reproduce  and  preserve  themselves.  They 


77V  ELEMENTARY  ED UCA  TION  4 3 

are  subject  to  constantly  varying  dangers.  There 
is  need  of  constant  observation  of  the  phenomena 
of  climate,  unceasing  prevision,  and  unremitting 
toil  in  order  to  deal  successfully  with  the  series 
of  difficulties  that  beset  the  way  from  seedtime 
to  harvest.  The  agricultural  life  thus  made  ex- 
treme demands  upon  both  mind  and  body  and 
afforded  little  opportunity  for  a  satisfactory 
emotional  reaction.  The  stimulus  was  so  slight, 
the  problem  so  vague,  the  end  so  distant,  the 
conflict  interest  so  reduced,  that  there  was  diffi- 
culty in  maintaining  interest  sufficient  to  secure 
a  successful  outcome.  For  this  reason  it  was 
necessary  to  reinforce  the  stimulus  by  artificial 
means.  This  is  the  significance  of  the  festivals 
which  accompanied  every  important  step  in  the 
season's  work.  This  is  why  religion  was  sum- 
moned tc  lend  its  support  in  securing  the  neces- 
sary regulation  of  activities  of  this  difficult  mode 
of  life. 

The  advantages  of  agriculture  as  a  means  of 
furnishing  an  abundant  supply  of  food  from  a 
small  area  soon  became  apparent.  Man's  labor 
acquired  a  value  hitherto  unknown.  Captives 
in  war  were  now  too  valuable  to  be  put  to  death. 
They  were  enslaved  and  compelled  to  carry  on 
agriculture  under  the  supervision  of  their  con- 
querors. 

On    the   wide    prairies    the    shepherds    could 


44  THE  PLACE  OF  INDUSTRIES 

live  for  a  long  time,  but  as  they  came  nearer 
the  forests  and  banks  of  the  lakes  and  streams 
it  was  necessary  to  take  up  the  plow;  but  land 
once  under  the  plow  does  not  turn  back  into 
pasture  land.  The  advances  of  the  pastoral  peo- 
ple were  sudden  and  rapid,  and  their  losses  were 
the  same.  The  advances  of  the  agricultural 
people  were  gradual  but  permanent.  In  the 
conflict  agriculture  was  bound  to  win  in  the  end. 
The  predatory  instinct,  which  was  developed 
by  the  warlike  pastoral  peoples  who  would  not 
submit  to  a  life  of  labor  was,  then  as  now,  turned 
to  social  ends.  In  those  days  it  united  people 
and  produced  a  feeling  for  political  order  and 
subordination  to  which  the  settled  life  of  agricul- 
ture served  to  give  stability.  In  these  later 
times  it  survives  in  the  organizer  of  great  indus- 
trial and  commercial  enterprises,  and  in  the  lead- 
ers of  great  scientific  explorations  and  discoveries. 

THE    AGE    OF    METALS. 

During  the  earlier  stages  of  culture  man  fre- 
quently made  use  of  such  metals  as  he  could  find 
in  the  pure  state  for  ornaments  ;  and  it  not  infre- 
quently happened,  in  localities  rich  in  native  cop- 
per, that  it  was  made  use  of  for  implements  and 
weapons.  But  this  process  involved  little  of  the 
insight  and  skill  of  the  real  work  in  metallurgy. 
How  man  first  discovered  the  secret  treasures  of 


IN  ELEMENTAR  Y  ED  UCA  TION  4  5 

the  earth,  how  he  harnessed  the  wind  and  fire  to 
do  his  bidding,  will  probably  ever  remain  one  of 
the  unwritten  chapters  of  history.  Yet  it  is  pos- 
sible, within  certain  limits,  to  reconstruct  the  situ- 
ation and  to  determine  the  problems  with  which 
man  had  to  deal,  as  well  as  the  experience  which 
he  could  bring  to  bear  upon  the  same. 

Hunting  tribes  had  long  been  familiar  with  the 
use  of  fire  in  shaping  weapons,  and  had  learned 
the  effect  of  heat  upon  the  various  stones  upon 
which  they  worked.  This  experience  and  that 
gained  in  firing  pottery,  especially  such  as  con- 
tained bits  of  shells,  united  with  experience  in 
the  use  of  blowguns,  formed  a  substructure  upon 
which  itwas  possible  to  build  the  art  of  metallurgy. 

Whether  the  first  experience  in  reducing  ores 
came  about  through  the  presence  of  such  ore  in 
the  camp-fire,  or  whether  it  was  the  result  of 
some  great  conflagration  in  a  region  abounding 
in  ore,  is  not  a  matter  of  any  great  consequence. 
The  significant  fact  is  that  the  result  of  the  acci- 
dent was  noted,  and  that  the  effort  was  made  to 
produce  consciously  a  product  similar  to  that 
which  was  the  result  of  an  accident.  The  name  of 
the  genius  who  made  the  discovery  is  not  known. 
The  stories  that  people  who  have  passed  through 
this  stage  tell  of  him  indicate  his  superiority,  the 
significance  of  his  work,  and  his  place  in  the 
society  in  which  he  lived. 


46  THE  PLACE  OF  INDUSTRIES 

Tradition  points  to  the  fact  that  the  art  of 
metal-working  was  founded  by  a  warrior  disabled 
in  battle,  who,  no  longer  able  to  engage  in  the 
more  strenuous  conflict  of  war,  turned  his  ener- 
gies in  another  direction.  It  is  very  probable 
that  such  a  man,  chafing  under  his  physical  weak- 
ness and  eager  to  avail  himself  of  any  opportunity 
to  make  good  his  lost  strength,  would  be  quicker 
to  recognize  the  significance  of  an  accidental 
process  of  smelting  ore  than  one  whose  ener- 
gies found  expression  in  a  more  active  life.  The 
problem,  presented  under  these  circumstances 
to  a  man  accustomed  to  lead,  would  not  be  given 
up  without  a  thorough  testing  of  all  available 
means.  The  difficulty  of  the  various  steps  in 
the  process,  as  well  as  the  significance  of  the 
application  of  the  new  material  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  implements  and  weapons,  would  unite  in 
causing  the  founder  of  this  art  to  guard  the  pro- 
cess from  the  public.  It  cost  too  much  labor, 
too  much  thought,  to  be  lightly  parted  with. 
Besides,  it  was  a  means  of  support  under  con- 
ditions in  which  it  was  impossible  to  engage  in 
other  occupations. 

Perhaps  it  was  the  secrecy  which  surrounded 
the  art,  as  well  as  the  almost  magical  character 
of  the  new  implements,  that  caused  strange 
stories  to  be  told  of  the  early  smiths  and  metal 
workers.  It  surely  was  for  the  interest  of  the 


IN  ELEMENTAR  Y  ED  UCA  TION  4  7 

worker  who  would  protect  his  art  to  encourage 
the  belief  in  his  supernatural  character.  The 
prevalence  of  such  superstitions  accounts  for  the 
fact  that  when  any  one  not  initiated  into  the  mys- 
teries of  the  process  wished  some  product  of  the 
metal  worker's  craft,  he  would  approach  to  a 
spot  some  rods  away  from  the  workshop  and 
there  hang  in  a  conspicuous  place  a  leaf,  the 
shape  of  the  weapon  or  implement  desired, 
together  with  a  quarter  of  meat  or  some  other 
useful  object.  The  fact  that  a  weapon  of  the 
desired  shape  was  found  the  next  morning  on  the 
spot  was  accounted  for  by  the  magical  power  of 
the  mysterious  man  who  dwelt  in  the  obscure 
place,  secluded  from  the  gaze  of  men. 

The  significance  of  the  use  of  metals  is  incal- 
culable. The  fact  that  the  process  was  so  diffi- 
cult and  so  much  more  indirect  than  most 
industrial  processes  of  the  time  made  it  necessary 
for  the  people  who  practiced  this  art  to  devote  a 
considerable  part  of  their  time  to  this  work 
alone.  When  the  advantage  of  the  use  of  metal 
in  place  of  stone  was  once  perceived,  a  demand 
sufficient  to  enable  the  workers  to  devote  their 
whole  time  to  the  art  was  made.  This  greatly 
influenced  the  development  of  trade,  which  from 
this  time  becomes  a  more  regular  feature  of  life. 
The  use  of  metals  affected  agriculture  so  as  to  al- 
most revolutionize  its  methods  of  work.  It  was 


48  THE  PLACE  OF  INDUSTRIES 

no  less  powerful  in  its  influence  on  warfare,  both 
offensive  and  defensive,  thus  indirectly  affecting 
the  location  and  character  of  habitations.  So 
powerfully  has  it  influenced  the  mechanical  arts 
that  it  is  not  uncommon  to  read  that  they  origi- 
nated in  the  art  of  metallurgy.  This  statement 
is  too  extreme,  for  it  ignores  the  humble  efforts 
of  countless  workers  of  the  long  ages  that  pre- 
ceded this  discovery,  but  it  serves  to  emphasize 
the  fact  that  this  art  has  put  into  man's  hands 
tools,  without  which  he  could  never  have  grap- 
pled with  the  difficulties  he  has  been  able  to  over- 
come by  their  use. 

TRAVEL,  TRADE,  AND  TRANSPORTATION. 

Man  has  ever  been  a  wanderer.  The  original 
stimulus  to  travel  was  found  in  the  search  for 
food.  If  man  would  gain  the  fruits  of  the  plant 
world  he  had  to  travel  to  the  favored  places  in 
the  proper  season.  Animals  came  to  him,  but 
they  also  migrated  again,  and  he  followed  them, 
utilizing  the  trails  that  they  made.  The  birds  in 
their  flight  suggested  that  there  might  be  better 
places  beyond  ;  and  even  the  movements  of  clouds 
and  the  heavenly  bodies  were  not  without  their 
influence.  Man's  route  was  the  trail  of  wild  ani- 
mals, his  guides  their  familiar  forms,  the  stars, 
currents  of  wind  and  water,  and  his  own  instincts 
and  experiences.  As  societies  became  established 


§  i 


l\ 

1! 


IN  ELEMENTAR  Y  ED  UCA  TION  49 

man  traveled  to  attend  tribal  gatherings.  These, 
although  they  partook  largely  of  a  religious  or 
festive  character,  actually  served  to  promote  trade, 
which  for  a  long  time  consisted  of  the  exchange 
of  presents. 

The  increase  in  population,  which  tended  more 
and  more  to  confine  people  to  more  restricted 
territories,  and  the  specialization  of  tribal  indus- 
tries due  to  the  difference  in  the  distribution  of 
the  raw  materials  of  production,  tended  to  foster 
a  more  regular  exchange.  In  some  cases  this 
took  place  in  the  form  of  tribal  visits  to  the 
favored  spots  on  the  payment  of  tribute  ;  in  other 
cases  temporary  markets  and  fairs  were  estab- 
lished on  neutral  territory,  or  at  places  that 
marked  a  break  in  transportation.  The  advan- 
tage of  this  exchange  was  such  as  to  make  it 
desirable  for  all  to  foster  it ;  and  so  in  many 
places  regular  markets  were  allowed,  even  in  hos- 
tile territory ;  and  traders,  travelers,  and  carriers 
were  allowed  to  pass  through  an  enemy's  country 
unmolested. 

The  need  of  standards  of  measurement  gave 
the  mind  more  precise  problems  with  which  to 
deal,  and  artificial  standards  were  gradually  devel- 
oped to  take  the  place  of  the  natural  units  that 
were  subject  to  too  great  a  variation  to  satisfy  the 
sense  of  justice  that  was  being  developed  by 
trade.  The  possibility  of  acquiring  the  special 


50  THE  PLACE  OF  INDUSTRIES 

productions  of  other  tribes  through  trade  oper- 
ated to  increase  the  desires  of  man.  He  was  no 
longer  satisfied  with  the  necessities  of  life  and 
such  ornaments  as  he  could  manufacture  by  util- 
izing the  resources  of  his  own  environment.  He 
began  to  demand  the  luxuries  of  life,  and  for  a 
long  time  trade  with  remote  regions  consisted 
chiefly  in  an  exchange  of  such  articles.  But  it 
was  as  true  then  as  now  that  the  luxuries  of  one 
age  are  the  necessities  of  the  next ;  and  so  it  was 
brought  about  that  the  demand  for  exchange  be- 
came more  sure  and  steady,  and  people  occupied 
themselves  with  improving  its  technique. 

Whether  the  trade  was  by  sea  or  by  land,  it 
was  necessary  to  consider  routes  of  travel  and 
ways  of  improving  the  same ;  it  was  necessary 
to  consider  the  motive  power,  the  vehicle,  the 
devices  for  attaching  the  burden ;  it  was  neces- 
sary to  consider  means  of  caring  for  the  comfort 
of  the  carriers,  and  a  multitude  of  problems  origi- 
nating in  the  various  activities  concerned  in  the 
process  of  taking  the  goods  from  the  producer 
to  the  consumer. 

The  activities  that  cluster  about  primitive  trade, 
travel,  and  transportation  were  significant  not  only 
with  reference  to  the  development  of  man's  intel- 
lect, but  with  reference  to  his  emotional  nature. 
The  satisfaction  of  human  desires  now  made  it 
necessary  to  establish  sympathetic  relations  with 


IN  ELEMENTARY  EDUCA  TION  5  * 

people  related  by  no  recognized  bonds  of  fellow- 
ship. The  contact  with  strange  people  at  fairs, 
at  the  market  places,  or  by  means  of  nomadic 
trade,  broadened  the  ideas  and  widened  the  sym- 
pathies. The  influence  of  travel  and  trade  in  all 
time  has  been  to  establish  and  maintain  peaceful 
relations  except  when  it  has  been  necessary  to 
exploit  new  fields ;  but  even  this  temporary  atti- 
tude of  hostility  is,  from  the  point  of  view  of  the 
trader,  a  necessary  step  in  establishing  wider  rela- 
tions of  a  peaceful  and  industrial  character. 

But  while  the  development  of  trade  tends  to 
unite  peoples,  for  a  time  at  least,  it  separates 
individuals.1  Hospitality  gives  way  to  a  sense  of 
exact  justice  which  makes  the  rendering  of  the 
most  trifling  things  which  humanity  would  de- 
mand a  subject  of  trade. 

The  growth  of  commerce  develops  a  new  type 
of  man.  Each  day  brings  a  multitude  of  prob- 
lems which  must  be  dispatched  with  the  least 
possible  delay.  The  similarity  of  the  problems 
that  arise  day  after  day,  appearing  under  particu- 
lar differences,  develops  the  habit  of  deciding 
questions  with  directness  and  dispatch.  It  secures 
the  habit  of  ready  adaptation  within  certain  pre- 
scribed limits. 

THE    CITY-STATE. 

The  succeeding  epochs  in  the  period  of  house 
1  MONTESQUIEU,  The  Spirit  o/Zaws,  Vol.  I,  p.  365. 


5  2  THE  PLA  CE  OF  IND  USTRIES 

industries  differ  from  those  already  outlined 
chiefly  in  degree.  The  city-state  is  merely  an 
expression  for  that  stage  of  culture  in  which  man 
in  eastern  Europe,  western  Asia,  and  northern 
Africa  made  the  conquest  of  the  river-valleys, 
which  previously  had  defied  his  efforts  to  bring 
them  under  cultivation  because  of  the  inadequacy 
of  his  implements  and  the  limitations  of  his  politi- 
cal institutions.  The  history  of  the  development 
of  the  city-state  is  an  account  of  the  growth  of  a 
more  and  more  prosperous  tribal  town  or  nomadic 
village  which  gradually  subjugates  the  less  pow- 
erful neighboring  peoples.  It  is  the  history  of 
the  transition  of  these  peoples  from  barbarism 
to  civilization. 

The  city-state  introduced  a  new  principle  of 
rank,  and  with  this  a  division  of  operative  func- 
tions. In  its  earliest  development  it  failed  to 
recognize  the  necessity  of  a  "general  homogene- 
ity and  interdependence  of  parts  and  that  unifi- 
cation which  gives  solidarity."  It  simply  sought 
to  compel  the  outlying  subject  cities  to  acknowl- 
edge allegiance  and  to  pay  tribute.  "Gradu- 
ally," writes  Mr.  Powell,1  "  the  lesson  was  learned 
that  universal  empire  can  be  but  transient  with- 
out the  universal  adoption  of  the  institutions  and 
religions  and  even  the  languages  of  the  conquer- 

1 J.  W.  POWELL,  "  From  Barbarism  to  Civilization,"  American 
Anthropologist,  Vol.  I,  p.  1 10. 


IN  ELEMENTAR  Y  ED  UCA  TION  5  3 

ors Then  it  was  that  a  new  class  of 

nations  developed — nations  organized  for  the  col- 
lection of  tribute  and  the  establishment  of  solidar- 
ity  Sometimes  the  center  was  on  the 

Nile,  sometimes  on  the  Euphrates,  sometimes  on 
the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean — and  at  last  con- 
querors dreamed  of  being  masters  of  the  world." 

THE    FEUDAL    SYSTEM. 

What  the  city-state  was  to  the  tribal  towns 
and  nomadic  villages  of  the  East,  feudalism  was 
to  those  of  the  West.  With  the  pressure  of  new 
populations  there  arose  the  need  of  defending 
and  rendering  more  habitable  the  lands  already 
possessed.  There  was  constant  danger  of  attacks 
from  barbarian  tribes  on  every  hand.  The  cen- 
tral governments  were  too  weak  to  render  effec- 
tive service  in  the  absence  of  ready  means  of 
intercommunication,  and  the  isolated  village 
communities  were  too  weak  to  act  alone.  There 
was  need  of  more  concerted  action.  The  small 
land  owners  were  in  need  of  protection,  and  the 
large  ones  in  need  of  working  and  fighting  men. 
There  were  few  places  of  defense  and  little  or 
no  money  available  for  rents  and  wages.  Under 
these  circumstances  willing  hands  erected  the 
great  feudal  castles  to  which  all  might  flee  in 
time  of  danger,  and  gladly  rendered  personal 
service  in  return  for  protection. 


5  4  THE  PLA  CE  OF  IND  US  TRIES 

The  feudal  castle  with  encircling  villages  be- 
neath its  walls  represented  an  enlarged  family,  and 
was  regulated  in  much  the  same  way  as  the  patri- 
archal family  of  earlier  days.  Under  this  regime 
such  skill  in  special  lines  was  developed  that 
when  the  time  came  for  emancipation,  the  work- 
ers were  ready  to  take  up  the  free  work  which 
characterizes  the  handicraft  period.  Feudal  in- 
dustries thus,  in  a  special  sense,  represent  the 
transition  from  domestic  or  house  industries  to 
the  handicraft  system,  which  characterized  the 
period  of  town  economy. 

THE  HANDICRAFT  SYSTEM,  OR  THE  PERIOD  OF 
TOWN  ECONOMY. 

The  handicraft  system  of  labor  arose  in  west- 
ern Europe  with  the  use  of  money,  the  freeing 
of  the  slaves  and  serfs,  the  development  of  com- 
merce, and  the  rise  of  the  free  towns.  Services 
which  had  been  rendered  by  slaves  were  now 
performed  by  free  men.  People  who  no  longer 
had  slaves  still  had  the  need  of  service,  and  under 
the  new  conditions  they  employed  the  various 
handicraftsmen  to  do  the  work  which  was  paid 
for  in  money.  "The  handicraftsman,"  writes 
Professor  Bucher,  "  is  distinguished  from  the 
wage-worker  only  in  the  fact  that  he  possesses 
all  the  means  of  production,  and  sells  for  a  defi- 
nite price  the  finished  article  which  is  the 
product  of  his  own  raw  material  and  his  own 


IN  ELEMENTARY  ED UCA  TION,  5  5 

incorporated  labor,  while  the  wage-worker  merely 
receives  a  recompense  for  his  labor."1  The  fact 
that  the  handicraftsman  always  worked  for  the 
consumer  served  to  place  responsibility  for  the 
quality  of  the  work. 

This  period  is  characterized  by  a  marked 
differentiation  of  the  activities  of  producing  the 
raw  material  from  those  of  manufacturing  it  into 
the  required  form.  It  is  true  that  these  activi- 
ties had  previously  been  performed  by  different 
people,  but  the  different  activities  had  been 
under  the  direction  of  one  man  who  controlled 
the  entire  process.  Under  this  regime  there  was 
a  continual  narrowing  of  the  activity  belonging 
to  any  one  craft,  and  there  grew  up  with  the 
development  of  the  craft-guilds  a  spirit  of  "  in- 
ternal bickerings." 

During  the  period  of  house  industries  the  labor 
of  the  individual  was  significant  in  relation  to  the 
family  or  clan.  Under  the  system  of  handicraft 
labor  it  was  significant  in  relation  to  the  local 
market  of  the  community  in  which  the  handicrafts- 
man resided.  Modes  of  travel  and  transportation 
were  such  that  in  respect  to  the  necessaries  of  life 
each  community  had  to  be  self-sufficing.  When, 
upon  the  application  of  other  than  human  power 
to  industrial  processes,  handicraft  labor  was  forced 
to  give  way  to  the  factory,  and  the  local  market 
*CARL  BUCHER,  Industrial  Evolution,  p.  170. 


5 6  THE  PLACE  OF  INDUSTRIES 

to  the  national  or  international  market,  it  became 
restricted  to  a  narrower  sphere.  In  that  sphere  it 
still  performs  a  distinct  social  service.  "That 
sphere,"  writes  Professor  Bucher,  "today  is  the 
country,  the  districts  where  it  still  finds  the  con- 
ditions of  existence  that  gave  birth  to  it  in  the 
Middle  Ages."  ' 

During  this  period  there  was  a  remarkable 
application  of  wind  and  water  power  to  indus- 
trial processes  formerly  carried  on  by  human  or 
animal  power.  This  fact,  together  with  the  many 
inventions  which  were  expressions  of  ways  of 
utilizing  these  new  forces,  is  significant  when 
considered  with  reference  to  the  inauguration  of 
free  labor. 

THE  FACTORY  SYSTEM,  OR  THE  PERIOD  OF 
NATIONAL  ECONOMY. 

The  factory  system  arose  in  response  to  the 
use  of  steam  as  a  motive  power.  Before  steam 
could  be  utilized  as  a  motive  power  it  was  neces- 
sary to  invent  means  of  applying  it  to  a  given 
work.  At  this  point  science  came  to  the  aid  of 
industry  and  contributed  the  knowledge  by 
means  of  which  steam  could  be  applied  and  con- 
trolled. 

The  history  of  the  application  of  steam  to 
means  of  travel  and  transportation  is  the  record 

1  Industrial  Evolution,  p.  211. 


IN  ELEMENTARY  ED UCA  TION  5 7 

of  the  change  from  exploiting  the  immediate 
locality  in  the  interests  of  industry  to  that  of 
exploiting  the  remotest  regions  of  the  known 
world.  It  is  a  record  of  the  change  from  the 
sale  of  goods  at  a  local  market  to  the  sale  of 
them  in  the  great  markets  of  the  world.  The 
history  of  the  application  of  steam  to  the  manu- 
facturing process  is  the  history  of  the  change 
from  the  simple  handicraft  labor  with  simple 
tools  in  the  interests  of  the  immediate  locality, 
to  the  centralized  system,  which  represents  the 
organization  of  the  entire  process  of  production 
for  a  national  market  in  the  most  effective  way 
yet  known. 

While  it  is  a  serious  question  whether  the 
economy  gained  through  the  minute  division  of 
labor  which  separates  the  skilled  from  the  un- 
skilled, the  mechanical  from  the  intellectual,  is 
not  at  the  expense  of  the  workers  themselves,  it 
cannot  be  denied  that  all  classes  have  received 
benefits  from  the  introduction  of  the  factory 
system.  The  complexity  of  the  social  life  which 
has  resulted  from  the  use  of  steam  as  a  motive 
power  has  presented  problems  that  baffle  the 
powers  of  the  most  acute.  Whether  they  will 
be  settled  in  this  stage  or  whether  they  will  give 
way  to  a  new  set  of  problems  that  will  come 
with  the  application  of  a  new  power  is  a  question 
for  the  future. 


58  THE  PLACE  OF  INDUSTRIES 

The  use  of  electricity  or  some  other  power 
that  can  easily  be  transported  would  certainly 
operate  to  check  the  centralizing  tendency 
brought  about  by  the  use  of  the  steam  engine. 
There  is  little  doubt  that  science  will  again  come 
to  the  aid  of  mankind  and  afford  a  solution  to 
many  of  the  vexed  social  questions  by  means  of 
promoting  the  advance  of  industrial  methods. 

"  The  unwillingness  to  use  machinery,"  writes 
Mr.  Burges,  "may  perhaps  be  traced  to  the 
teaching  of  Mr.  Ruskin  and  of  the  late  Mr. 
Pugin,  but  then  these  gentlemen  have  unfortu- 
nately been  misunderstood.  What  they  have 
battled  for  was  the  disuse  of  mechanical  means 
in  the  production  of  architectural  ornaments. 
Thus,  in  a  building,  they  objected  to  cast  leaves 
in  a  cornice  because  one  would  be  exactly  like 
another  and  because  the  undercuttings  could  not 
be  obtained  from  a  mould;  but,  as  far  as  I  can 
see,  they  never  objected  to  the  proper  employ- 
ment of  machinery  as  a  help  to  either  the  artist 
or  the  workman.  In  fact,  Pugin  says  in  one  of 
his  works  that  had  he  'a  cathedral  to  build,  one 
of  the  first  things  he  would  do  would  be  to  set 
up  a  lathe  to  turn  the  smaller  columns.'"1 

A  careful  study  of  the  various  forms  of  in- 
dustry that  prevail  in  our  own  age  in  various  parts 
of  the  world,  together  with  the  consideration 

1  BURGES,  Art  Applied  to  Industry. 


IN  ELEMENTARY  ED UCA  TION  5 Q 

of  such  thoughts  as  Mr.  Mitchell  presents  in  his 
book  entitled  The  Past  in  the  Present,  leads  one  to 
appreciate  the  closing  words  of  one  of  the  chap- 
ters in  Professor  Bucher's  Industrial  Evolution 
where  he  writes,  "  For  after  all,  the  comforting 
result  of  every  serious  consideration  of  history 
is,  that  no  single  element  of  culture  which  has 
once  entered  into  the  life  of  men  is  lost,  that 
even  after  the  hour  of  its  predominance  has  ex- 
pired, it  continues  in  some  more  modest  posi- 
tion to  co-operate  in  the  realization  of  the  great 
end  in  which  we  all  believe,  the  helping  of  man- 
kind toward  more  and  more  perfect  forms  of  ex- 
istence." ' 

1  CARL  BUCHER,  Industrial  Evolution,  p.  184. 


CHAPTER  III. 

ORIGINS  OF  THE  ATTITUDES  THAT  UNDERLIE 
INDUSTRY. 

"  If  we  could  obtain  an  ultimate  analysis  of 
what  is  at  work  in  the  world  about  us,  shaping 
the  minds  and  the  destinies  of  mankind,  we 
would  doubtless  find  there  the  deeds  of  all  the 
vanished  units  of  the  race,  each  having  a  share, 
great  or  small,  in  the  human  activity  of  the 
present  moment."1  The  truth  which  this  state- 
ment of  Professor  Shaler's  expresses  compels 
one  who  would  understand  the  attitudes  of  the 
child  to  take  into  account  their  origin;  for,  how- 
ever closely  we  focus  our  attention  to  the  facts 
of  the  present,  much  of  their  significance  escapes 
if  they  are  not  illumined  by  the  light  derived 
from  a  study  of  the  past  activities  of  the  race  in 
which  they  first  took  root. 

Human  nature  is  too  complex  to  lend  itself  to 
precise  formulation.  In  studying  the  child  we 
may  be  able  to  discover  attitudes  due  to  physical, 
heredity,  those  due  to  social  heredity,  those  due  to 
environment,  those  due  to  the  interaction  of  two 
or  more  of  these,  and  we  may  discover  types  of 
activity  characteristic  of  the  different  stages  of 
development;  but  when  we  have  finished  our 

1 N.  S.  SHALER,  The  Individual,  p.  78. 
60 


IN  ELEMENTARY  EDUCA  TION  6 1 

classification  we  cannot  superimpose  it  upon  any 
child  so  as  to  make  it  represent  his  whole  nature. 
It  is  always  necessary  to  make  allowance  for 
individual  variation.  There  is  something  in 
each  individual  that  escapes  formulation. 

It  is  an  accepted  truth  that  those  racial  activi- 
ties which  are  most  ancient  and  most  prolonged 
have  had  the  most  potent  influence  in  determin- 
ing the  attitudes  of  mankind.  Attitudes  due  to 
such  causes  appear  earliest,  and  although  they 
m«ay  early  be  overlaid  with  more  complex  habits, 
they  remain  strong  throughout  life;  and  when,  as 
decay  sets  in,  the  more  complex  habits  one  by  one 
disappear,  these  native  instincts  reassert  them- 
selves and  persist  till  the  last. 

There  are  instincts  that  have  resulted  from 
later  racial  activities,  but  their  early  appearance 
as  well  as  their  permanence  is  in  direct  propor- 
tion to  the  remoteness  and  duration  of  the 
activities  which  produced  them.  Comparatively 
recent  racial  activities  certainly  operate  in  deter- 
mining the  attitudes  of  the  child;  but  they  oper- 
ate not  through  physical,  but  through  social  he- 
redity. 

Darwin  is  a  notable  example  of  those  scientists 
who  have  attempted  to  explain  human  emotional 
attitudes  by  reference  to  those  of  animals.  How- 
ever fruitful  such  an  investigation  may  be,  it 
seems  to  promise  less  for  educational  purposes 


62  THE  PLACE  OF  INDUSTRIES 

than  investigations  along  racial  lines;  for  it 
must  be  remembered  that  continuity  in  emotional 
attitudes  can  be  explained  only  on  the  basis  of 
continuity  in  biological  function.  For  this  reason 
education  must  wait  upon  biological  science 
until  the  connections  needed  are  established,  and 
even  then  the  use  of  the  materials  offered  is 
open  to  the  charge  of  explaining  the  more  clear 
by  the  less  clear.  Until  we  know  more  of  the 
consciousness  of  animals  we  are  scarcely  in  a 
position  to  make  a  profitable  use  of  animal 
psychology  in  interpreting  the  activities  of  the 
child. 

When  we  attempt  to  interpret  the  attitudes  of 
the  child  in  the  light  of  the  activities  of  the  race 
there  is  more  hope  of  success ;  for  the  continuity 
of  the  biological  function  upon  which  the  con- 
tinuity of  emotional  attitudes  depends  is  assured. 
But  even  here  we  are  liable  to  error  in  the  inter- 
pretation of  the  conscious  states  of  people  living 
under  social  conditions  so  much  more  simple 
than  our  own.  The  means  of  rectifying  these 
errors,  however,  are  becoming  more  and  more 
available  through  the  results  of  the  different 
methods  of  research  which  serve  mutually  to 
check  one  another.  The  especial  value  of  this 
method  is  that  it  reveals  a  rich  educational  sig- 
nificance to  attitudes  which,  from  the  point  of 
view  of  our  more  complex  social  life,  are  trivial 


IN  ELEMENTAR Y  ED UCA  TION  63 

and  meaningless.  This  method  of  investigation, 
more  than  any  other,  is  rich  in  suggestions  of 
ways  of  utilizing  for  educational  purposes  forces 
which  usually  are  allowed  to  expend  themselves 
without  becoming  the  basis  of  social  habits. 

The  importance  of  the  body  in  the  study  of 
emotional  attitudes  can  scarcely  be  overrated.  It  is 
through  the  body  that  heredity  acts.  Dr.  Loeb 
is  authority  for  the  statement  that  the  only  traits 
we  know  to  be  due  to  heredity  are  the  form  of 
the  body  and  the  instincts;  and  he  states  that  for 
the  inheritance  of  instincts  "it  is  only  necessary 
that  the  egg  contain  certain  substances  —  which 
will  determine  the  different  tropisms  —  and  the 
conditions  for  producing  bilateral  symmetry  of 
the  embryo."1  That  these  substances  which  de- 
termine the  different  tropisms  are  the  product  of 
remote  and  long-continued  racial  activities  is  now 
recognized.  How  the  racial  activities,  through 
the  mediation  of  these  "substances,"  have  re- 
sulted in  the  different  tropisms ;  how  these  trop- 
isms reveal  the  continuity  of  human  life  from  the 
earliest  times  to  the  present ;  how  they  have  the 
most  profgMitd^sigmfcance  for  educational  pur- 
poses, it  is  the  purpose  of  the  following  pages  to 
make  clear. 

Emotional  attitudes  undoubtedly  owe  their 
origin  to  physiological  causes.  They  are  organic 

1  JACQUES  LOEB,  The  Physiology  of  the  Brain,  p.  7. 


64  THE  PLACE  OF  INDUSTRIES 

strains  which  may  easily  be  recognized  in  the 
case  of  the  coarser  emotions.  The  difficulty  in 
recognizing  the  organic  reverberations  in  the  case 
of  the  more  refined  emotions  is  on  account  of  the 
subtlety  of  the  movements  involved. 

To  understand  the  attitudes  of  the  child  we 
must  know  the  activities  that  are  bound  up  with 
them.  Knowing,  feeling,  and  willing  are  bound 
up  with  those  activities  that  developed  with  refer- 
ence to  maintaining  the  life  of  the  individual  and 
the  race.  Those  activities  that  have  for  their 
object  the  nourishment  of  the  individual  and  the 
perpetuation  of  the  species  represent  the  most 
fundamental  processes  in  the  life  of  primitive 
people.  That  these  activities  should  be  accom- 
panied by  pleasure  is  an  indication  that,  in  their 
outcome,  they  contribute  to  the  welfare  of  the 
individual  and  the  race.  It  seems  to  be  the  nat- 
ural method  in  organic  development  to  place  a 
premium  upon  the  activity  needed  to  further  the 
normal  growth  of  the  individual  as  well  as  the 
species. 

Long  before  man  learned  to  manufacture  tools 
to  supplement  his  feeble  strength  he  exploited 
his  environment  for  food,  which  he  consumed 
upon  the  spot,  his  hands,  his  teeth,  and  his  diges- 
tive tracts  performing,  unaided  by  mechanical 
means,  the  functions  later  lightened  by  the  use  of 
tools  and  mechanical  devices.  Activities  with 


IN  ELEMENTARY  EDUCA  TION  65 

reference  to  the  exploitation  of  environment  lie 
at  the  very  basis  of  the  industrial  processes  of  all 
times.  That  the  child  early  manifests  such  an 
instinct,  and  that  in  some  form  it  continues 
throughout  life,  if  not  atrophied  through  disuse, 
is  apparent  to  any  one  who  will  observe  the  hab- 
its of  the  people  in  any  community. 

The  most  ancient  activities  which  have  pro- 
duced this  instinct  are  undoubtedly  those  of  the 
race  during  the  period  preceding  the  use  of  tools. 
When  the  whole  burden  of  production  and  con- 
sumption was  placed  upon  the  body  alone,  there 
was  need  of  searching  for  the  most  nutritious  and 
easily  digested  food  that  the  environment  could 
afford.  Later,  when  man's  strength  was  supple- 
mented by  the  use  of  weapons,  the  desire  for 
food  and  for  social  approval  impelled  him  to 
become  skilful  in  the  hunt.  Those  activities  of 
the  hunting  people  that  developed  alertness  with 
reference  to  the  animal,  vegetable,  and  mineral 
resources  of  the  environment,  that  developed 
fear  of  that  with  which  man  felt  himself  unable 
to  cope,  and  courage  with  reference  to  difficulties 
within  the  possibility  of  a  successful  achieve- 
ment, resulted  in  the  most  generic  instincts  of 
human  kind.  Whether  the  activities  of  fishing 
people  were  grafted  upon  these  instincts,  or 
whether  they  are  as  fundamental  as  those  devel- 
oped in  the  hunting  stage,  is  not  known  with 


66  THE  PLACE  OF  INDUSTRIES 

certainty.  Similar  habits,  with  a  difference  in 
manifestation  to  suit  the  difference  in  the  situa- 
tions, would  result  in  either  case. 

While  the  hunter  exploited  the  various  topo- 
graphical features  with  reference  to  the  possibili- 
ties in  satisfying  his  needs,  the  fisherman 
exploited  the  sea  and  the  coasts.  In  the  pas- 
toral stage  this  fundamental  activity  found  ex- 
pression in  the  domestication  of  animals,  in  the 
search  for  new  pastures,  in  the  protection  of 
the  flocks  and  herds,  and  especially  in  aggress- 
ive warfare,  which  is  but  another  form  of  ex- 
ploitation of  environment  for  the  satisfaction  of 
human  needs. 

Each  succeeding  stage  of  development  makes 
use  of  this  instinct  in  a  way  to  suit  its  own  needs. 
Now  the  exploitation  takes  the  form  of  discover- 
ing the  species  of  plants  that  will  respond  most 
readily  to  man's  care ;  again  it  is  a  search  for 
earth's  hidden  secrets ;  at  one  time  it  is  an  at- 
tempt to  find  the  most  favorable  routes  of  travel 
or  the  most  advantageous  sites  for  trade ;  at 
another  it  is  a  search  for  the  choicest  soils  which 
can  be  made  subject  to  man's  needs  by  the  use  of 
new  instruments  and  the  means  of  maintaining 
collective  activity.  It  may  be  a  search  in  the  sky 
foi*  the  means  of  determining  the  approach  of  a 
new  season  or  a  means  of  guiding  the  traveler  at 
sea  ;  perhaps  it  is  a  series  of  experiments  with 


IN  ELEMENTARY  EDUCA  TION  67 

new  materials  in  order  to  bring  about  desirable 
features  accidentally  revealed  ;  and  sometimes  it  is 
an  attempt  to  discover  different  forms  of  motive 
power  or  the  means  of  applying  the  same.  There 
is  no  need  of  extending  the  list.  To  make  it 
complete  would  be  to  make  an  inventory  of  the 
initial  steps  in  all  forms  of  progress.  That  this 
instinct  has  sometimes  been  misdirected,  that  its 
influence  has  sometimes  been  detrimental  to  the 
best  interests  of  society,  is  not  due  to  any  quality 
that  inheres  in  the  instinct  itself,  but  to  the 
fact  that  it  has  not  been  placed  properly  with 
reference  to  the  other  activities  of  life  without 
which,  except  in  the  most  elementary  stages  of 
life,  it  has  no  raison  d'etre. 

Whether  we  interpret  the  activities  of  the 
earliest  people  of  mid-Pleistocene  times,  when 
life  was  sustained  by  the  acquisition  of  mate- 
rials that  were  consumed  upon  the  spot  with- 
out the  intervention  of  tools,  as  giving  rise  to  the 
instinct  to  exploit  one's  environment  or  to  the 
workmanship  instinct  depends  upon  the  point  of 
view.  Perhaps  it  would  be  the  wiser  plan  to 
regard  this  period  in  which  production  and  con- 
sumption are  not  separated  in  time,  as  the  undif- 
ferentiated  form  out  of  which  both  emerge  at  a 
later  date. 

The  term  workmanship  instinct  is  one  that  is 
used  somewhat  loosely.  As  used  by  Professor 


68  THE  PLACE  OF  INDUSTRIES 

Veblen  x  it  is  broad  enough  to  include  not  only 
those  activities  involved  in  reshaping  materials 
to  suit  one's  needs,  but  the  whole  round  of  activi- 
ties to  which  this  lesser  activity  is  related  as  a 
part  to  a  larger  whole.  It  is  possible  that  it  is 
due  to  this  use  of  the  term  that  he  has  failed  to 
recognize  the  fact  that  there  was  ample  room  for 
the  development  of  prowess  before  the  advent 
of  the  barbarian  form  of  culture.  If  it  be  true, 
as  is  accepted  by  the  best  authorities  in  anthro- 
pology, that  the  extinction  of  the  huge  creatures 
that  characterized  the  Pleistocene  period  was  due 
to  man's  efforts,  and  if  we  can  accept  the  state- 

•The  following  quotation  from  Professor  Veblen's  article, 
"The  Instinct  of  Workmanship  and  the  Irksomeness  of  Labor," 
published  in  Vol.  IV  of  the  American  Journal  of  Sociology,  will 
show  the  sense  in  which  he  uses  the  term  :  "  A  process  or  method 
of  life,  once  understood,  assimilated  in  thought  works  into  the 
scheme  of  life  and  becomes  a  norm  of  conduct,  simply  because 
the  thinking,  knowing  agent  is  also  the  acting  agent.  What  is 
apprehended  with  facility  and  is  consistent  with  the  process  of 
life  and  knowledge  is  thereby  apprehended  as  right  and  good. 

"Where  habituation  is  enforced  by  selective  elimination  the 
acquired  proclivity  passes  from  the  status  of  habit  to  that  of 
aptitude  or  propensity.  It  becomes  a  transmissible  trait,  and 
action  under  its  guidance  becomes  right  and  good,  and  the  longer 
and  more  consistent  the  selective  adaptation  through  which  the 
aptitude  arises  the  more  firmly  is  the  resulting  aptitude  settled 
on  the  race,  and  the  more  unquestioned  becomes  the  sanction  of 
the  resulting  canon  of  conduct. 

"  So  far  as  regards  his  relation  to  the  material  means  of  life, 
the  canon  of  thought  and  of  conduct  which  was  in  this  way 
enforced  upon  early  man  was  what  is  here  called  the  instinct  of 
workmanship." 


IN  ELEMENTAR  Y  ED  UCA  TION  69 

ment  that  the  pastoral  stage  did  not  develop  until 
after  the  climate  of  western  Europe  and  its  char- 
acteristic fauna  and  flora  had  become  similar  to 
the  climate  and  characteristic  fauna  and  flora 
that  still  prevail,  except  as  modified  by  human 
action,  man  of  the  Pleistocene  period,  who 
invented  the  bow  and  arrow  and  all  the  weapons 
which  precede  it,  who  made  use  of  poison,  traps, 
pitfalls,  and  countless  other  devices  in  his  work 
of  exterminating  the  creatures  that  impeded  his 
progress,  must  have  been  characterized  by  a 
spirit  of  mastery  over  conditions  and  a  disposi- 
tion to  take  the  initiative  in  a  greater  degree  than 
that  for  which  Professor  Veblen1  gives  him  credit; 
and,  this  being  the  case,  there  is  less  reason  to 
interpret  the  predatory  life  of  the  barbarian 
stage  of  culture  as  an  abrupt  transition  in  racial 
development  than  there  would  otherwise  be. 

'THORSTEIN  VEBLEN,  Theory  of  the  Leisure  Class,  p.  219. 
"The  circumstances  of  life  and  the  ends  of  human  effort  that  pre- 
vailed before  the  advent  of  barbarian  culture,  shaped  human 
nature  and  fixed  it  as  regards  certain  fundamental  human  traits. 
And  it  is  to  these  ancient,  generic  features  that  modern  men  are 
prone  to  take  back  in  case  of  variation  from  human  nature  of  the 
hereditary  present.  The  conditions  under  which  men  lived  in 
the  most  primitive  stages  of  associated  life  that  can  properly  be 
called  human,  seem  to  have  been  of  a  peaceful  kind ;  and  the 
character — the  temperament  and  spiritual  attitude  —  of  men 
under  these  early  conditions  of  environment  and  institutions  seems 
to  have  been  peaceful  and  unaggressive,  not  to  say  an  indolent, 
cast.  For  the  immediate  purpose  this  peaceable  cultural  stage 
may  be  taken  to  mark  the  initial  phase  of  social  development." 


70  THE  PLACE  OF  INDUSTRIES 

For  purposes  of  clearness  the  use  of  the  term 
workmanship  instinct  in  this  discussion  will  be 
limited  to  those  activities  which  are  involved  in 
the  reshaping  of  material  for  purposes  that  suit 
man's  needs. 

Even  if  the  earliest  activities  which  involved 
the  mere  acquisition  of  food  for  immediate  con- 
sumption be  waived,  there  yet  remained  a  long 
period  in  this  most  ancient  stage  of  culture  in 
which  a  large  share  of  man's  energy  was  expended 
in  constructive  activities.  When  we  consider  the 
skill  he  acquired  in  working  in  stone,  in  bone,  in 
shell,  in  horn,  in  wood,  in  ivory,  in  textiles,  in 
skins,  and  in  clay,  the  simplicity  of  his  tools,  and 
the  finish  of  his  products  ;  when  we  consider  his 
insight  into  the  nature  of  the  materials  with 
which  he  worked,  and  how  he  made  use  of  this 
insight  in  the  various  processes  of  construction 
in  such  a  way  as  to  respect  the  limitations  and 
the  possibilities  of  each,  as  well  as  the  use  which 
the  object  was  to  serve  ;  and  when  we  consider 
the  amount  of  labor  that  was  performed  by  these 
people,  we  are  convinced  that  these  activities, 
which  were  prolonged  for  so  great  a  period,  are  a 
sufficient  basis  for  the  belief  that  the  workman- 
ship instinct  is  one  of  the  most  deep-seated  and 
permanent  possessions  of  mankind. 

That  the  savage  dislikes  work,  in  the  sense  in 
which  we  commonly  use  the  term,  is  true.  That 


IN  ELEMENTAR  Y  ED  UCA  TION  ? I 

he  accomplished  what  we  would  call  work,  is 
equally  true.  What  the  savage  objects  to  in  our 
work  is  not  the  strain  of  the  muscles,  but  the 
strain  of  attention.  The  latter  is  painful  to  him 
because  it  is  not  conducive  to  the  welfare  of 
either  the  individual  or  the  species  in  the  stage 
of  culture  in  which  he  lives.  Reflection  in  the 
savage  life  is  a  more  expensive  form  of  specializa- 
tion than  the  perfected  instinct  of  any  animal  is 
to  itself  and  its  species.  The  pain  which  accom- 
panies intellectual  activity  can  be  interpreted  only 
as  a  warning  of  nature  to  proceed  no  farther  in 
that  direction. 

The  savage  does  not  work  according  to  an 
intellectually  ordered  plan.  He  works  in  response 
to  his  own  feeling  of  need.  He  finds  his  prob- 
lems in  the  necessities  of  the  situations.  They 
therefore  have  a  real  significance  for  him.  They 
call  out  a  response.  At  each  step  of  the  process 
he  thus  feels  the  emotional  glow  that  accom- 
panies the  sense  of  enlargement  of  one's  per- 
sonality, the  mastery  of  a  new  power.  As  long 
as  the  problem  appeals  to  him,  as  long  as  there 
is  a  store  of  nervous  energy  upon  which  to  draw, 
he  continues  the  work ;  but  when  the  problem 
loses  its  force,  when  the  nervous  energy  is  dis- 
charged, he  ceases.  He  is  unable  to  hold  him- 
self to  his  work  by  an  act  of  the  will.  His 
activity  is  characterized  by  the  same  lack  of 


?2  THE  PLACE  OF  INDUSTRIES 

patience,  the  same  lack  of  persistence,  as  is  char- 
acteristic of  the  child  when  the  emotional  reac- 
tions fail,  and  by  the  same  patience,  the  same 
persistence,  which  frequently  is  pushed  to  the 
limits  of  complete  physical  exhaustion,  when  the 
emotional  reactions  remain  strong.  So  necessary 
are  the  emotional  reactions  to  the  maintenance 
of  an  activity,  that  in  those  monotonous  activities 
that  made  a  great  demand  for  sustained  physi- 
cal activity  without  occupying  the  mind,  the 
introduction  of  artificial  means  of  securing  emo- 
tional reactions  was  almost  universally  practiced. 
In  some  cases  this  was  accomplished  merely  by 
social  conversation  and  jests  made  possible  when 
several  individuals  were  performing  their  work 
in  company ;  the  rhythmical  character  of  the 
automatic  movements  exercised  such  an  influence 
upon  the  social  intercourse  that  it  often  found 
expression  in  song.  The  feelings  thus  aroused,  it 
was  possible  to  accomplish  easily  tasks  impossi- 
ble without  such  support.  In  the  case  of  co- 
operative work  the  support  of  rhythm  was  neces- 
sary in  order  to  regulate  the  co-ordinations  as 
well  as  to  sustain  the  activity. 

The  workmanship  instinct  dominates  some 
stages  of  development,  to  be  sure,  to  a  greater 
degree  than  it  does  others  ;  but  no  community 
can  ignore  the  claims  of  this  instinct  for  any 
length  of  time  without  serious  consequences.  To 


IN  ELEMENTARY  EDUCA  TION  73 

such  a  degree  was  it  the  normal  expression  of 
each  individual  in  the  hunting  and  fishing  stages, 
and  so  strong  a  support  did  it  find  in  social 
approval  that  if,  perchance,  some  individual  in 
the  clan  failed  to  provide  himself  with  proper 
weapons  for  the  hunt,  and  failed  to  bring  his 
share  of  meat  to  the  common  meal,  he  was 
excluded  from  participation  in  the  common  life 
of  the  clan. 

While  the  less  strenuous  conditions  of  the  pas- 
toral life  made  less  vigorous  demands  for  the 
products  of  workmanship,  the  leisure  afforded, 
together  with  the  more  regular  supply  of  nour- 
ishing food,  made  available  a  larger  store  of 
nervous  energy  than  ever  before.  As  more 
energy  was  accumulated  in  the  nerve  centers 
than  was  needed  in  the  serious  activities  of  life, 
it  instinctively  sought  expression.  This  expres- 
sion was  naturally  along  the  lines  of  established 
co-ordinations,  but  often  without  any  further 
object  than  the  activity  itself. 

The  pastoral  stage  was  pre-eminently  the  play 
period  of  the  race.  On  equally  good  grounds  it 
may  be  called  the  period  in  which  art  made  rapid 
development.  Human  culture  had  not  advanced 
sufficiently  to  secure  a  clear  differentiation 
between  art  and  play.  Neither  was  there  any 
well  defined  boundary  between  work  and  play. 
Now  an  activity  is  more  like  work,  in  a  moment 


74  THE  PLACE  OF  INDUSTRIES 

it  is  more  like  play,  and  again  it  is  art,  or,  possi- 
bly, all  three  at  the  same  time. 

There  was  leisure  enough   at  this  time  for  a 
large  amount  of  playful  experimentation,  which 
found  expression  in  the  further  modification  of 
instinctive  activities  already  adapted  to  the  social 
needs  of  the  time.     In  following  the  herds  across 
the  boggy  marshes  it  was  desirable  to  be  able  to 
walk  on  stilts.     In  leisure  hours  the  shepherds 
played  in  such  contests.     In  caring  for  the  flocks 
among  the  rocky  chasms,  the  shepherd  had  to  be 
ready  at  a  moment's  notice  to  leap  across  a  gorge, 
to  climb  a  precipitous  height,  or  to  jump  across 
a  mountain  torrent.     In  their  leisure  hours  we 
find  them  occupied  in  leaping,  jumping,  vaulting, 
and  climbing  games  with  the  element  of  danger 
added,  at  times,  by  the  introduction  of  a  blazing 
fire  over  which  the  vault  was  to  be  made.     On 
the  uplands  and  grassy  plains  an  animal  that  be- 
gan to  stray  from   the    herd  was  brought  back 
by    a    stone    thrown    with    or    without    artificial 
devices.     Leisure  hours  saw  the  shepherd  boys 
engaged  in  contests  of  this  kind.     The  value  of 
these  games  in  securing  the  power  of  concentra- 
tion and  the  capacity  for  swift  and  sure  reaction, 
is  incalculable. 

Like  children  of  today,  the  shepherds  delighted 
in  many  games  that  were  imitative  of  the  actions 
of  the  domestic  animals.  Some  of  these  were 


IN  ELEMENTARY  ED UCA  TION  ? 5 

doubtless  related  to  serious  activities,  but  many, 
such  as  the  imitation  of  a  cock-fight,  appear  to 
be  pure  play.  The  representation  of  stealing 
sheep  from  a  village  by  a  predatory  animal  or 
thief  probably  had  a  more  utilitarian  aspect. 
The  various  activities  of  pastoral  life — domes- 
ticating the  wild  animals,  watching  the  flocks, 
protecting  them  from  animals  and  predatory 
tribes,  seeking  the  lost,  migrating  for  change  of 
pasture,  driving  home  the  cows,  milking,  sheep- 
shearing,  washing  and  picking  the  wool,  carding, 
spinning,  weaving,  fulling,  and  knitting  —  all 
found  expression  in  games  which  afforded  recre- 
ation or  relief  from  the  tedium  of  a  monotonous 
occupation.  Many  of  these  have  descended,  with 
little  change,  as  a  part  of  the  heritage  of  all  suc- 
ceeding ages. 

The  Virginia  reel,  as  is  well  known,  is  the  sur- 
vival of  a  weaving  game.  Weaving  songs  which 
imitate  the  shooting  of  the  shuttle  from  side  to 
side,  the  passage  of  the  woof  over  and  under 
the  threads  of  the  warp,  and  other  related  activi- 
ties, are  common.  Weaving  rhymes  and  panto- 
mimic dances  are  to  be  found  in  the  folklore  of 
almost  every  people  who  have  practiced  this 
art. 

The  stage  in  which  we  find  the  pantomimic 
dance  and  song  is  evidently  not  the  earliest 
stage  in  the  development  of  these  arts.  The 


76  THE  PLACE  OF  INDUSTRIES 

dance  is  a  representation  of  a  serious  process* 
As  women  became  more  and  more  skilful  in 
weaving,  their  bodily  activities  were  rendered 
more  and  more  rhythmical.  As  the  worker  sur- 
renders herself  to  the  rhythm  of  the  movement 
there  is  a  tendency  for  the  entire  organism  to 
respond  to  the  rhythm,  and  we  thus  have  a  tone 
rhythm, which  accompaniesthe  movement  rhythm. 
Sometimes  words  are  used,  but  they  are  often 
nonsense  words,  being  significant  chiefly  on  ac- 
count of  the  support  they  lend  to  the  bodily 
movements.  It  is  very  probable  that  mothers 
made  use  of  these  suggestions  in  teaching  their 
daughters,  and  that  later  the  activity  was  repre- 
sented in  play.  The  survival  of  such  rhymes  as 
the  following  indicates  the  ancient  habit  of  sus- 
taining the  activity  in  a  monotonous  work,  as 
well  as  the  influence  of  the  industrial  occupation 
in  the  development  of  poetry  and  song. 

Any  one  who  has  ever  used  a  dash  churn  will 
have  no  difficulty  in  recognizing  the  rhythmic 
activity  which  gave  the  impulse  to  this  rhyme, 
which,  no  doubt,  originally  was  accompanied 
with  song: 

CHURNING   RHYME. 

Come,  butter,  come  ;  come,  butter,  come  ; 

Peter  stands  at  the  gate  waiting  for  a  butter'd  cake. 

Come,  butter,  come. 

— Journal  of  American  Folk-Lore,  Vol.  VIII,  p.  82. 


IN  ELEMENTARY  EDUCA  TION  77 

In  this  the  rhythmic  movement  of  the  bark- 
beaters  can  be  detected : 

Sip,  sap,  say  ;  sip,  sap,  say  ; 

Lig  in  a  nettle  bed  while  (until)  May  day. 

—  Ibid.,  p.  82. 

WOOL-CARDER'S  RHYME. 

Taary  woo',  taary  woo',  taary  woo'  is  all  to  spin. 
Card  it  well,  card  it  well,  card  it  well  ere  you  begin, 
For  when  carded,  row'd,  and  spun, 
Then  the  work  is  hofelins  (half)  done  ; 
But  when  woven,  drest  and  clean, 
It  may  cleading  (clothing)  for  a  queen. 

—Ibid.,?.  81. 

KNITTING   RHYME. 

Needle  to  needle,  and  stitch  to  stitch, 

Pull  the  old  woman  out  of  the  ditch. 

If  you  ain't  out  by  the  time  I'm  in, 

I'll  rap  your  knuckles  with  my  knitting  pin. 

—Ibid. 

All  of  these  rhymes  show  the  effect  of  the  more 
recent  stages  of  culture  ;  but  all  had  a  very  early 
origin,  and,  doubtless,  in  connection  with  indus- 
trial processes.  Numerous  illustrations  can 
readily  be  found  in  the  folklore  of  any  people. 
In  places  not  yet  dominated  by  the  influence  of 
the  factory,  it  is  still  possible  to  gather  many 
songs  and  rhymes  of  this  character  that  are  still 
in  use.  Doubtless,  most  adults  of  this  country 
have  personal  experience  in  the  use  of  some  such 
device  for  relieving  the  drudgery  of  a  monotonous 


78  THE  PLACE  OF  INDUSTRIES 

occupation  of  childhood.1  Where  school  condi- 
tions are  flexible  enough  to  permit  freedom  of 
expression,  it  is  possible  to  observe  spontaneous 
manifestations  of  the  use  of  rhythm  in  indus- 
trial occupations.2 

Without  taking  the  extreme  position  that  Pro- 
fessor Bucher  has  taken  in  Arbeit  und  Rhythmus, 
we  cannot  fail  to  recognize  that  industry  has  had 
a  powerful  influence  in  the  development  of  art  of 
all  kinds.  Just  as  the  musical  instruments  of  the 
hunting  stage  were  subservient  to  the  needs  of 
the  people  in  regulating  the  movements  in  the 
hunt,  and  in  the  dance  which  was,  in  many  cases, 
a  preparation  for  or  a  celebration  of  the  hunt,  so 
those  of  the  pastoral  stage  were  such  as  would 

1 1  well  remember  hearing  my  mother  as  she  tried  to  teach  me 
how  to  knit,  make  use  of  this  formula,  "  Put  the  needle  in,  put  the 
thread  over,  pick  it  through ,  and  pull  it  off."  Since  finding  the  more 
interesting  rhyme  given  above,  I  have  wondered  if  that  would 
have  been  more  successful  in  my  case,  and  whether  I  should  have 
been  compelled  to  resort  to  as  many  devices  as  I  did  in  order  to 
hold  myself  to  the  monotonous  work.  The  formula  had  little 
effect,  but  on  being  told  that  I  must  do  my  own  knitting,  I  was 
able  to  keep  at  the  work  under  the  combined  influence  of  the 
whistling  cold  wind,  the  sound  of  the  spinning-wheel,  which, 
together  with  the  wind,  in  some  way  suggested  the  possibility  of 
freezing,  and  such  a  regular  tying  of  knots  in  the  yarn  at  inter- 
vals of  about  four  inches  as  would  make  it  evident  that  I  had 
made  some  progress  when  I  came  to  a  knot. 

a  During  this  year  I  have  observed  in  the  laboratory  of  the 
Department  of  Education  of  the  University  of  Chicago  many 
instances  of  this  kind.  Children  of  six  years,  while  modelling  in 
Clay,  spontaneously  express  themselves  in  rhythmic  parallelism, 


IN  ELEMENTARY  ED UCA  TION  79 

facilitate  the  activities  of  the  shepherd  during 
his  hours  of  work  or  afford  him  pleasure  during 
his  leisure  hours.  The  development  of  the  horn 
is  closely  bound  up  with  the  needs  of  pastoral 
people  in  giving  a  signal  of  alarm  when  watching 
the  flocks.  In  time  of  war  the  desire  to  com- 
municate more  precise  information  stimulated 
the  mind  to  invent  instruments  which  could  be 
used  to  express  the  differences.  Such  instru- 
ments were  invented  in  the  hunting  and  fishing 
stages  in  connection  with  the  co-operative  activi- 
ties of  those  times,  and  were  still  further  devel- 
oped during  the  pastoral  period.  In  so  far  as 
the  conditions  of  life  in  the  pastoral  stage 

On  finishing  modelling  a  chicken  in  clay,  a  little  boy,  apparently 
without  thinking  of  any  one  in  the  group,  said  : 

Run  away  little  chick, 

Run  home,  home,  home. 

The  following  tendency  toward  rhythmic  form  was  observed 
in  a  lesson  in  co-operative  composition  :  "  Beyond  the  plots  was 
the  cultivated  land.  Outside  the  cultivated  land  were  broad 
strips  of  pasture  land.  Beyond  this  was  woodland." 

A  group  of  children,  aged  nine  years,  when  polishing  pen 
trays  that  they  had  made,  spontaneously  began  to  recount  their 
experience  in  the  earlier,  less  interesting  processes.  As  they 
continued  the  monotonous  movement  of  rubbing  in  the  wax,  a 
girl  said  that  she  was  washing  her  baby's  face.  A  boy  rejoined 
that  he  was  getting  his  little  boy  ready  for  school.  The  sug- 
gested images  furnished  an  emotional  reaction  which  seemed  to 
afford  the  children  much  satisfaction,  and  probably  were  quite 
similar  in  effect  to  that  of  the  conversation  and  jests  of  primitive 
people  when  engaged  in  individual  work  in  the  company  of 
others. 


80  THE  PLACE  OF  INDUSTRIES 

afforded  freedom  to  the  individual  to  express  his 
thoughts  and  feelings  for  the  sake  of  the  pleas- 
ure in  the  activity  itself,  poetry  and  music  were 
freed  from  the  necessities  of  industrial  occupa- 
tions ;  but  because  nature  places  a  premium  upon 
the  co-ordinations  necessary  to  maintain  the 
necessary  activities  of  life,  and  because  of  the 
need  of  being  ready  for  an  emergency,  the  art 
and  play  activities  of  the  period  are  along  the 
lines  marked  out  by  the  industrial  activities  of 
the  race. 

The  problems  presented  by  the  agricultural 
life  were  so  much  more  complex,  and  the  end 
was  so  much  farther  removed,  that  there  was  dif- 
ficulty in  fixing  the  attention  to  the  problem  ; 
the  reflexes  were  lost  and  the  emotional  reaction 
was  not  secured.  It  was  impossible  under  these 
conditions  for  the  worker  to  continue  the  activity 
for  its  own  sake.  Interest,  if  secured,  had  to 
come  through  the  perception  of  the  relation  of 
the  activity  to  a  desired  end,  or  through  the  real- 
ization of  the  moral  and  ethical  ideas  involved. 
Where  free  labor  prevailed  there  arose  in 
response  to  this  need  a  series  of  festivals,  par- 
taking more  or  less  of  a  religious  character, 
marking  each  important  phase  of  the  whole 
round  of  activities,  from  the  clearing  of  the 
ground  to  the  harvesting  and  storing  of  the 
crops.  In  this  way  attention  was  fixed,  and  the 
needed  response  secured. 


IN  ELEMENT  A  RY  ED  UCA  TION  8 1 

It  is  very  probable  that  many  who  shared  in 
these  festivities  acted  in  response  to  the  immedi- 
ate stimulus  of  the  occasion  without  thought  of 
the  more  distant  end  ;  yet  the  importance  that 
the  harvest  festival  assumed  as  marking  the  cul- 
mination of  the  entire  activity  served  to  fix 
attention  upon  the  end,  while  the  whole  series 
gradually  exercised  an  educative  influence  far 
beyond  the  immediate  utilitarian  need. 

The  festive  character  of  many  agricultural 
activities  has  been  maintained  until  within  recent 
times,  when  the  introduction  of  more  complicated 
machinery  has  so  lightened  the  burdens  that  it 
is  no  longer  necessary  to  rely  upon  such  means 
of  support.  The  distaste  for  agricultural  life 
which  is  so  common  among  young  people  is 
largely  due  at  present  not  so  much  to  the  work 
itself,  as  to  the  fact  that  in  the  separation  of 
industrial  processes  from  festivals  the  emotional 
element  of  the  latter,  instead  of  becoming  trans- 
lated into  an  art  interest,  has,  in  too  many  cases, 
suffered  atrophy  from  disuse. 

While  tribes  in  which  free  labor  prevailed  were 
solving  their  labor  problems,  as  just  stated,  other 
tribes,  particularly  those  shepherd  tribes  that 
were  being  compelled  to  take  up  agriculture  on 
account  of  the  pressure  of  new  populations  upon 
lands  that  had  already  reached  their  limit  in 
supplying  the  needs  of  pastoral  people,  were 


82  THE  PLACE  OF  INDUSTRIES 

working  out  the  solution  of  their  problems  in  a 
different  way.  Accustomed  to  the  easy  life  of 
the  pastoral  people,  which  afforded  the  emo- 
tional reactions  of  art  and  play  as  well  as  the 
stronger  ones  of  war,  it  was  not  strange  that  they 
preferred  it  to  the  settled  agricultural  life.  But  it 
was  necessary  to  till  the  soil  ;  so  they  preserved 
the  lives  of  captives  in  war  and  required  them  to 
render  assistance  in  the  work  of  cultivating  the 
land. 

In  the  early  stages  of  slavery  there  was  little 
difference  between  the  position  of  master  and 
slave.  Both  did  the  same  kind  of  work.  With 
the  increase  in  the  number  of  slaves  and  in  the 
property  of  the  master  it  became  necessary  to 
organize  the  slave  labor  in  gangs  with  overseers. 
Labor  thus  became  compulsory,  and  disgrace 
was  attached  to  the  unfortunate  members  of 
society  who  became  the  victims  of  a  stronger 
power.  Society  was  cleft  in  twain,  and  the  chasm 
has  not  yet  been  completely  bridged.  From  this 
time  labor  became  distasteful  to  the  leisure  class 
not  so  much  on  its  own  account,  as  because  of  its 
associations  with  an  inferior  class  and  with 
domesticated  animals.  It  was  conceived  as 
requiring  little  intelligence.  It  became  irksome 
to  the  slave  because  the  problem  was  external  to 
his  own  interests  and  needs.  He  was  no  longer 
free  to  choose  his  problems  or  to  control  the 


IN  ELEMENTARY  EDUCA TION  83 

conditions  under  which  he  carried  on  his  work. 
Deprived  of  the  conditions  for  attention,  the 
organism  failed  to  respond,  and  the  emotional 
reactions  were  thus  lost. 

Succeeding  stages  of  culture  have  tended  to 
perpetuate  the  distinction  between  the  leisure 
and  the  industrial  classes  first  drawn  in  the 
pastoral  and  agricultural  stages.  Labor,  which 
at  first  was  a  free  manifestation  of  the  whole 
being  and  the  part  of  each  member  of  society, 
came  to  be  a  forced  expression  of  muscular  move- 
ment of  certain  members  of  society.  As  society 
became  more  and  more  fixed  in  castes,  labor  of 
certain  kinds  was  conceived  not  merely  as  ignoble, 
but  as  wrong,  and  a  taboo  was  placed  on  many 
forms  of  activity. 

The  freeing  of  the  slaves  and  serfs  in  the  latter 
part  of  the  Middle  Ages  helped  to  restore  normal 
conditions  of  labor.  But  the  long  ages  of  servi- 
tude had  done  much  to  overlay  the  primitive 
instincts  that  underlie  industrial  processes  with 
such  habits  of  submission  and  indifference  that 
it  was  not  possible  for  them  to  reassert  them- 
selves in  their  native  vigor  for  some  time.  Nor 
have  they  been  able  to  accomplish  this  work 
during  ages  that  have  succeeded.  Although  the 
removal  of  external  restrictions  witnessed  a 
remarkable  manifestation  of  the  inventive  spirit 
in  the  application  of  wind  and  water  power  to 


84  THE  PLACE  OP  INDUSTRIES 

industrial  processes,  the  breaking  up  of  the  pro- 
cess of  production  into  lesser  activities,  and  the 
assignment  of  each  division  to  some  particular 
craft,  has,  in  a  measure^counteracted  the  advance 
movement,  which  was  taking  place  at  this  time. 
The  handicraft  worker,  deprived  of  the  rich, 
broad  experience  afforded  by  the  free  house 
industries  of  the  earlier  period,  when  each  indi- 
vidual carried  on  the  whole  round  of  activities 
from  the  search  for  the  raw  material  to  the  con- 
sumption of  the  finished  product,  developed 
special  skill  at  the  expense  of  an  all-round  ex- 
perience. Yet  in  spite  of  this  the  handicrafts- 
man, as  compared  with  the  factory  laborer  of 
today,  had  considerable  range  for  the  exercise 
of  his  ability.  Handicraft  labor,  so  long  as  it 
was  treated  in  an  artistic  spirit,  reacted  in  a 
wholesome  way  upon  the  worker,  who  became 
more  intelligent,  more  interested  in  his  work,  and 
consequently  happier.  The  direct  relation  which 
was  maintained  between  the  producer  and  con- 
sumer at  this  time  served  to  maintain  ethical 
relations  in  the  industrial  activities  of  the  period. 
The  application  of  simple  machinery  to  the 
various  manufacturing  processes  during  the  elev- 
enth, twelfth,  and  thirteenth  centuries  involved 
an  advance  in  the  organization  and  division  of 
labor.  Work,  which  heretofore  had  in  most 
cases  been  a  personal  occupation,  now  became  a 


IN  ELEMENTARY  ED UCA  TION  8 5 

civic  function.1  The  removal  of  the  end  of  labor 
added  new  dignity  to  the  process.  It  afforded 
the  worker  the  joy  of  hope  and  the  conscious- 
ness of  an  enlarged  personality.  The  mind 
became  less  occupied  with  the  particular  ques- 
tions of  the  moment  and  more  interested  in 
questions  of  general  welfare.  The  spirit  of 
exploitation,  which  manifested  itself  in  the  Cru- 
sades, in  the  establishment  of  great  commercial 
companies,  and  in  the  exploration  of  the  New 
World,  reacted  upon  society  and  thus  created  a 
demand  for  more  powerful  motive  forces  and 
more  adequate  means  of  application  than  ever 
before.  The  development  of  science  in  modern 
times  is  largely  a  response  to  this  demand. 

Industry,  enriched  by  the  contributions  of  sci- 
ence, becomes  more  and  more  complex.  The 
end  becomes  farther  and  farther  removed.  The 
worker,  no  longer  being  able  to  perceive  the 
whole  process  of  production,  has  need  of  a  greater 
consciousness  of  collective  life  than  ever  before. 
His  activity  is  no  longer  a  personal  occupation  that 
brings  him  honor  as  in  the  period  of  house-indus- 
tries, nor  a  civic  function,  the  actions  and  inter- 
actions of  which  are  within  the  range  of  his  per- 
ception, as  in  the  period  of  handicraft  labor,  but 
a  social  function  in  a  national  if  not  a  cosmopoli- 
tan society. 

1  AUGUST  COMTE,  Positive  Polity,  Vol.  Ill,  p.  413. 


86  THE  PLACE  OF  INDUSTRIES 

That  the  welfare  of  the  workers  has  been  lost 
sight  of  in  the  excitement  attending  such  stu- 
pendous changes,  is  not  strange.  The  balance 
has  become  lost  between  the  character  of  the 
machine  and  motive  power  on  the  one  hand,  and 
the  intellectual  and  moral  condition  of  the  worker 
on  the  other.  To  restore  this  balance  it  is  nec- 
essary to  parallel  the  advance  in  the  character  of 
the  machinery  and  the  motive  power  by  an 
improvement  in  the  intellectual  and  spiritual 
condition  of  the  worker.  He  must  be  able  to 
perceive  the  relation  of  the  small  part  of  the 
work  which  he  undertakes  to  the  entire  process 
from  its  earliest  to  its  latest  stages.  He  must 
have  such  a  sense  of  responsibility  as  will  enable 
him  to  have  as  great  regard  for  the  character  of 
the  work  that  he  produces  for  a  foreign  market, 
as  for  that  produced  for  a  consumer  in  the  imme- 
diate neighborhood  where  he  is  well  known.  In 
short,  the  industrial  development  that  has  ad- 
vanced from  being  a  function  of  the  household 
to  that  of  the  city,  and  finally  to  that  of  the 
nation  and  nations  of  the  earth,  needs  to  be  par- 
alleled by  an  enlargement  of  social  consciousness 
from  the  personal,  through  the  municipal,  to 
such  a  consciousness  as  recognizes  the  brother- 
hood of  all  men.  Not  until  this  consciousness 
is  aroused  will  it  be  possible  for  the  problem,  in 
its  entirety,  to  be  present  in  the  mind  of  the 


IN  ELEMENTAR  Y  ED  UCA  TION  8  7 

individual  worker.  Only  when  it  is  thus  present, 
only  when  labor  is  a  voluntary  expression,  is  the 
full  moral  value  of  the  act  secured. 

In  so  far  as  the  development  of  industry  has 
made  a  separation  between  industry  and  art ;  in 
so  far  as  the  substitution  of  machinery  for  hand 
labor  has  resulted  in  the  decline  of  the  festival 
in  connection  with  the  more  laborious  forms  of 
work,  there  is  need  of  some  more  adequate  pro- 
vision for  the  satisfaction  of  the  emotions  than 
is  found  in  the  work  itself.  Just  as  the  intellect 
needs  the  illumination  that  comes  from  the  contri- 
butions of  science,  so  the  emotions  need  the  sus- 
taining and  socializing  power  of  art.  The  recog- 
nition of  this  fact  is  the  root  of  the  more  recent 
advance  in  municipal  government,  and  it  prom- 
ises much  for  the  future  of  the  public  schools. 

Such  are  some  of  the  origins  of  the  attitudes 
of  the  child  toward  activity.  In  the  beginning, 
when  societies  were  simple  and  unstable,  physical 
heredity  was  the  most  potent  factor  in  determin- 
ing the  attitude,  although  it  was  always  modified 
by  the  exigencies  of  the  natural  and  social  envi- 
ronment. With  the  growth  of  more  complex 
societies  social  heredity,  in  the  form  of  tradi- 
tions, customs,  and  habits  of  conduct,  plays  a 
more  and  more  important  part  in  forming  the 
attitudes  of  mind  through  the  agency  of  social 
approval.  In  proportion  as  activities  modified 


88  THE  PLACE  OF  INDUSTRIES 

by  social  standards  are  remote  and  long  con- 
tinued are  they  transmuted  into  psychical  atti- 
tudes. So  in  the  child  of  today  there  is  present 
not  merely  the  original  psychical  attitude  of  the 
most  remote  period,  but  such  attitudes  reduced  and 
embodied  in  new  and  more  complicated  co-ordi- 
nations. The  more  recent  modifications  of  racial 
activities  operate  in  society  today,  not  through 
physical  heredity,  but  through  social  heredity. 
Society  in  each  age  offers  a  premium  of  approval 
on  the  activity  that  is  deemed  at  the  time  most 
necessary. 

In  proportion  as  society  lays  hold  of  instinctive 
reactions  and  harnesses  them  to  present  social 
needs,  the  process  of  education  is  promoted.  The 
most  serious  mistake  has  been  the  tendency  to 
ignore  the  psychical  attitudes  of  the  child  by  im- 
posing upon  him  the  highly  organized  products  of 
present  social  life.  It  is  beginning  to  be  more  gen- 
erally recognized,  however,  that  education,  to  be 
vital,  must  be  grounded  deep  in  physical  heredity, 
and  to  be  of  real  social  service,  must  be  guided 
and  refined  in  the  light  of  our  highest  social 
ideals.  The  natural  emotional  reactions  are 
fixed,  and  we  need  not  expect  any  fundamental 
change.  It  is  the  part  of  wisdom  to  build  upon 
this  sure  foundation  rather  than  to  seek  one 
among  the  shifting  sands  of  more  recent  times. 
The  achievements  of  recent  civilization  are  of 


IN  ELEMENTARY  EDUCA  TION  89 

value   not  in  determining  the  foundation,  but  in 
fashioning  the  structure  that  is  reared  upon  it. 

Because  the  life  of  the  child,  with  reference  to 
that  of  the  adult,  is  an  embryonic  life ;  because  it 
is  the  period  for  the  formation  rather  than  for 
the  serious  use  of  co-ordinations,  with  reference 
to  adult  life  it  is  a  period  of  preparation.  But 
however  valuable  such  an  idea  may  be  to  the 
adult  in  the  consideration  of  educational  ques- 
tions, it  offers  no  adequate  motive  to  the  child. 
Not  until  the  mind  is  able  to  conceive  of  an  end 
and  the  relation  of  the  successive  steps  in  the 
means  to  this  end,  can  the  idea  of  the  serious 
work  of  the  future  have  any  direct  influence  in 
shaping  the  motives  of  the  child.  Not  until  this 
power  is  more  fully  developed  than  we  find  it  in 
the  period  of  childhood  can  it  be  relied  upon  to 
such  a  degree  as  to  be  an  important  factor  in  de- 
termining the  attitude  of  the  child.  The  child 
lives  in  the  present.  He  must  find  his  satisfac- 
tion in  an  immediate  way.  His  pleasurable  emo- 
tions are  bound  up  with  his  instinctive  reactions. 
Because  these  reactions  have  been  marked  out 
by  the  serious  activities  of  the  race  in  its  first 
steps  in  human  progress,  because  they  represent 
the  processes  of  modern  civilization  in  their  most 
rudimentary  forms,  they  serve  to  present  the  edu- 
cational opportunity  for  establishing  helpful  rela- 
tions between  the  life  of  the  past  and  that  of  the 


90  THE  PLA  CE  OF  INDUSTRIES 

present.  By  making  use  of  these  instinctive 
reactions  it  is  possible  to  make  a  gradual  transi- 
tion from  the  dramatic  and  play  interests  of  the 
child  to  the  more  serious  interests  of  the  adult. 

Although  childhood  has  not  yet  been  studied 
carefully  enough  so  that  it  is  possible  to  know 
with  scientific  accuracy  the  best  time  to  lay  hold 
of  each  of  the  various  emotional  reactions,  enough 
is  known  to  make  it  no  longer  justifiable  to  con- 
fine education  to  formulated  intellectual  concep- 
tions that  have  no  meaning  apart  from  the  pro- 
cess of  which  they  form  but  one  of  the  less 
important  phases.  It  is  now  evident  to  thought- 
ful people  who  have  given  attention  to  these 
questions,  that  if  we  would  develop  the  powers  of 
the  child,  we  must  utilize  and  refine  those  instinct- 
ive reactions  that  are  seeking  expression,  and 
that,  if  we  would  cultivate  in  him  a  social  con- 
sciousness to  a  degree  sufficient  to  enable  him  to 
live  an  ethical  life  in  a  complex  social  system, 
we  must  furnish  him  the  means  of  participating 
in  the  more  fundamental  processes  of  life  to  such 
a  degree  as  to  afford  him  a  measuring  unit  by 
means  of  which  he  can  interpret  materials  which 
are  presented  to  him  in  less  direct  ways.  Only 
in  this  way  is  it  possible  for  the  child  to  appreci- 
ate the  significance  of  different  activities  and 
their  relative  place  in  the  organization  of  society. 

The  fact  that  few  of  the  child's  activities  under 


IN  ELEMENTARY  ED UCA  TION  Q I 

ordinary  conditions  result  in  products  of  com- 
mercial value  favors,  rather  than  obstructs,  the 
educational  process.  There  is  less  inclination  on 
the  part  of  society  to  withdraw  the  child  from 
the  more  direct  educational  influences  than  would 
otherwise  be  the  case.  This  fact  operates  also 
in  determining  what  forms  the  activity  may  take. 

The  demand  for  the  completion  of  a  situation 
is  characteristic  of  the  mind  in  all  stages  of 
development,  but  it  takes  less  to  complete  it  in 
some  stages  than  in  others.  For  this  reason  the 
earlier  activities  of  children  along  industrial  lines 
comprehend  a  much  shorter  circuit  than  the  later. 
While  the  processes  of  production  and  consump- 
tion which  represent  the  complete  situation — 
the  entire  circuit — may  be  so  simple  in  the  kin- 
dergarten as  to  be  scarcely  distinguishable  from 
each  other,  the  process  grows  more  and  more 
complex  until,  in  the  later  years  6f  childhood,  it 
represents  a  comprehensive  view  of  the  typical 
phases  of  the  more  complex  industrial  processes. 

In  so  far  as  the  marginal  difference  between 
the  child's  interests  and  his  power  to  satisfy 
them  in  a  real  way  presents  a  stimulus  that 
retains  its  power  to  the  end,  real  construction 
finds  its  place  as  an  instrument  in  education. 
To  deprive  the  child  of  the  opportunity  to  con- 
struct objects  of  real  utility  would  be  to  remove 
certain  wholesome  limits,  which  are  quite  neces- 


Q2  THE  PLACE  OF  INDUSTRIES 

sary  in  order  that  he  may  learn  to  make  his 
adjustments  in  the  world  in  which  he  lives.  To 
confine  his  activity  to  such  processes  would  be 
to  seriously  limit  his  development. 

Interest  and  the  power  to  do,  seldom  or  never 
form  an  equation.  Where  interest  is  greatly  in 
excess  illustration,  rather  than  real  construction, 
finds  its  place.  The  illustration  may  be  of  the 
constructive  type,  but  it  differs  from  it  in  being 
intended  chiefly  to  satisfy  the  demand  for  a 
rich  imagery  rather  than  to  serve  any  direct 
utilitarian  purpose.  Such  a  situation  presents  a 
favorable  opportunity  for  the  development  of 
technique.  There  is  a  normal  motive  for  it  at 
this  time.  The  time  devoted  to  technique  under 
such  circumstances  depends  upon  the  time  the 
child  is  able  to  keep  in  view  the  relation  between 
the  technical  work  and  the  whole  of  which  it  is 
merely  a  phase. 

In  so  far  as  the  completion  of  the  situation 
requires  the  child  to  exploit  his  own  environ- 
ment in  the  search  for  real  or  illustrative  mate- 
rials of  industrial  processes,  observation  and  sim- 
ple experimentation  find  their  place.  In  so  far 
as  it  requires  the  modification  of  old  habits  to 
new  purposes  in  the  process  of  manufacture, 
experimentation  finds  its  place.  In  so  far  as  it 
requires  a  recognition  of  the  satisfaction  that 
comes  with  the  consumption  of  the  results  of 


IN  ELEMENTARY  EDUCA TION  93 

production,  occasions  which  provide  for  this  need, 
such  as  social  entertainments  and  exhibitions, 
find  their  place  as  a  supplement  to  the  more 
regular  demands  of  the  home  and  the  school. 

With  the  child,  as  with  the  race,  the  pleasure 
that  comes  from  the  direct  exercise  of  bodily 
activities  becomes  more  and  more  subordinate  to 
that  which  comes  from  the  augmentation  or 
transformation  of  muscular  power  through  the 
use  of  tools,  and  later  to  that  which  springs  from 
the  substitution  of  animal  or  physical  and  chemi- 
cal forces.  During  this  process  there  is  an 
increasing  demand  for  intellectual  activity,  which, 
by  its  effectiveness  in  substituting  other  forces 
than  those  of  the  human  body  in  the  processes 
of  industry,  secures  more  and  more  favorable 
conditions  for  a  freer  expression  of  the  emotions 
than  was  possible  when  bodily  activity  was  so 
largely  subservient  to  industrial  needs.  At  a 
later  stage  the  intellect  acquires  freedom  in  the 
same  way.  The  freeing  of  the  emotions  mani- 
fests itself  in  art,  while  the  freeing  of  the  intel- 
lect manifests  itself  in  science.  Both  were  orig- 
inally bound  up  in  the  industrial  process,  both 
are  conditioned  by  it  for  a  long  period,  and  both 
separate  themselves  for  a  time  from  this  process 
only  to  return  again  to  give  and  to  receive  fresh 
impulse  to  a  higher  activity. 

If  the  increase  in  power  is  not  accompanied  by 


94  THE  PLACE  OF  INDUSTRIES 

the  enlargement  of  social  consciousness,  it  is  apt 
to  manifest  itself  in  a  dominating  or  competitive 
spirit.  If,  however,  the  socializing  process  pro- 
ceeds in  harmony  with  the  increasing  power  and 
means  of  control,  the  force  which  would  other- 
wise express  itself  in  a  competitive  way  manifests 
itself  in  co-operation.  The  transformation  of 
power  from  the  purely  competitive  to  the  co-oper- 
ative form  takes  rise  in  the  need  of  greater  force 
than  the  individual  can  produce  or  in  an  appli- 
cation of  force  that  is  possible  only  with  the 
combined  action  of  several  persons.  By  means 
of  rhythm  people  learn  to  work  together  and  in 
so  doing  become  conscious  of  the  value  of 
co-operative  action  within  certain  limits.  How 
these  limits  are  gradually  extended  so  as  to 
include  larger  and  larger  groups,  how  purely 
commercial  relations  established  between  groups 
lead  to  the  recognition  of  helpful  social  relations, 
how  the  application  of  new  forces  by  more  and 
more  highly  complicated  machinery  makes  the 
recognition  of  national  and  international  rela- 
tions necessary  —  these  are  questions  that  are 
significant  to  society;  and  because  they  are  signi- 
ficant to  society  they  are  of  vital  importance  in 
education.  The  development  of  the  spirit  of 
co-operation  does  not  imply  a  disuse  of  the 
spirit  of  conflict.  The  instinct  which  underlies 
this  spirit  was  developed  so  early  and  during 


IN  ELEMENTAR  Y  ED  UCA  TION  9 5 

such  a  long  period  that,  do  what  we  may,  it  will 
abide  as  one  of  our  most  permanent  possessions.1 
It  means,  rather,  a  gradual  refining  of  the  method 
of  conflict  and  a  restriction  of  it  to  fields  that 
are  legitimate  with  reference  to  the  other  inter- 
ests of  community  life. 

The  original  impulse  to  manual  training  came 
from  the  house  industries,  not  from  the  handi- 
crafts.2 As  a  mode  of  production  it  is  not  desirable 
to  perpetuate  either  except  within  certain  limits. 
As  a  means  of  education  there  seems  to  be  noth- 
ing so  well  suited  to  bring  about  an  adjustment 
between  the  attitudes  of  the  child  and  the  later 
differentiated  subjects  of  knowledge,  which  each 
individual  needs  to  appropriate,  as  the  house 
industries.3  The  difference  between  the  house 

1 W.  I.  THOMAS,  "  The  Gaming  Instinct,"  American  Journal 
of  Sociology,  Vol.  VI,  p.  750. 

2  CARL  BUCHER,  Industrial  Evolution,  p.  155. 

3  Such  statements  as  the  following  from  GEORGE  H.  BRYANT, 
in  the  Manual  Training  Magazine,  July,  1901,  p.  205,  fail  to  dis- 
tinguish between  the  educational  process  and  the  final  result,  as 
well  as  between  the  emotional  attitudes  of  the  child  and  those  of 
the  adult.     It  is  probable  that  there  will  be  much  confusion  in 
thought  along  these  lines  until  we  distinguish  more  carefully 
between  the  meaning  of  utility  to  the  adult  and  to  the  child,  as 
well  as  between  the  social  and  psychological  needs  of  the  different 
periods  of  life.     Mr.  Bryant  writes  :     "  No  tool  or  process  should 
be  retained  in  a  course  after  its  general  use  in  the  mechanical 
world  has  passed.     Such  courses,  like  the  shops  employing  the 
obsolete  methods,  soon  become  '  back  numbers.'     Such  an  obso- 
lete exercise  or  process  may  have  a  certain  '  disciplinary  value,' 
or  use  as  a  practice  piece  ;  but  mere  disciplinary  exercises,  with- 
out practical  application,  should  have  no  more  place  in  a  school- 


g6  THE  PLACE  OF  INDUSTRIES 

industries  and  the  handicrafts  is  this :  the  house 
industries  introduce  the  child  in  a  vital  way  to  a 
great  number  of  materials  and  afford  him  activity 
in  a  great  variety  of  processes.  The  handicrafts 
require  a  concentration  of  attention  upon  some 
one  form  of  production  and  a  mastery  of  that. 
The  house  industries  are  significant  in  their  fit- 
ness to  present  situations  for  the  breaking  up  of 
instincts  into  a  great  variety  of  combinations. 
The  handicrafts,  on  the  other  hand,  are  signifi- 
cant in  their  tendency  to  narrow  the  range  of 
interests  and  fix  habits,  which  are  broken  up  with 
difficulty  in  later  years. 

The  handicrafts  and  machinery  labor  have  a 
place  in  elementary  education,  but  it  is  a  differ- 
ent one  from  that  of  the  house  industries.  The 
house  industries  correspond  to  the  many-sided 
interests  and  activities  of  the  child  that  can 
be  most  fruitfully  cultivated  in  the  early  years. 
The  handicraft  and  factory  systems  correspond, 
rather,  to  the  differentiation  that  begins  to  take 
place  in  interests  during  the  later  years  of  child- 
hood, and  should  be  so  treated  as  to  preserve  for 
the  child  the  view  of  the  essential  factors  in  the 
complete  situation.  It  is  here  that  education 
begins  to  make  more  vigorous  demands  upon  both 
science  and  art. 

shop  course  nowadays  than  in  arithmetic  or  grammar.  The  same 
or  sufficient  discipline  can  be  obtained  with  infinitely  greater 
stimulus  by  a  problem  having  a  direct  practical  bearing." 


CHAPTER  IV. 

PRACTICAL  APPLICATIONS. 
GUIDING    PRINCIPLES. 

AT  the  beginning  of  the  preceding  chapter  we 
had  occasion  to  state  the  principles  upon  which 
the  continuity  of  psychical  attitudes  depends. 
We  there  stated  that  continuity  in  psychical  atti- 
tudes depends  upon  continuity  in  biological 
function,  and  concluded  that,  for  educational 
purposes  at  least,  little  is  to  be  gained  at  present 
by  the  study  of  animal  activities.  It  was  further 
stated  that  even  though  continuity  in  biological 
functions  were  established,  until  we  know  more 
of  the  states  of  consciousness  of  animals,  the 
method  of  interpreting  the  activities  of  the  child 
by  those  of  the  animal  would  be  to  still  further 
complicate  the  question,  because  we  are  more 
familiar  with  the  child  than  with  the  animal.  In 
the  case  of  explaining  the  attitudes  of  the  child 
by  those  of  primitive  people  we  found  that  it  is 
possible  to  make  the  biological  connection,  and 
that  the  inaccuracies  resulting  from  the  failure  to 
interpret  the  conscious  states  of  the  savage  can 
be  rectified  by  the  results  of  other  methods  of 
study.  We  stated  also  that  those  activities 
which  are  most  remote  and  most  prolonged  are 

97 


98  THE  PLACE  OF  INDUSTRIES 

most  permanent  in  their  effect  upon  the  instinct- 
ive reactions  of  all  times,  and  that  later  activities, 
in  so  far  as  they  affect  the  psychical  attitudes, 
appear  later  in  the  development  of  the  individual 
and  are  less  permanent. 

We  found  that  those  attitudes  that  represent 
the  emotional  reactions  of  organic  strains  under- 
gone in  the  serious  activities  of  primitive  people 
have  not  been  transmitted  unchanged,  but  have 
suffered  reduction  and  become  incorporated  in 
new  co-ordinations  through  the  influence  of  suc- 
ceeding activities.  They  appear  in  the  child 
today  as  play-impulses,  which  only  in  an  ideal- 
ized way  represent  the  serious  activities  of  indus- 
trial life. 

We  also  have  considered  briefly  the  situation 
in  which  man  was  placed  in  the  successive 
periods,  his  equipment,  the  character  of  his  prob- 
lems, and  his  manner  of  response.  We  have  seen 
how  in  these  as  in  the  attitudes  themselves  there 
has  been  a  gradual  change  from  the  simple  to  the 
more  and  more  complex. 

We  have  now  to  consider  what  the  guiding 
principles  are  with  reference  to  the  application 
of  the  results  of  this  study  to  the  practical  work 
in  the  different  stages  of  development  in  the  ele- 
mentary-school period.  Keeping  in  mind  the 
changes  in  the  psychical  attitudes  as  well  as  those 
in  the  natural  and  social  environment,  we  ought 


IN  ELEMENTAR  Y  ED  UCA  TION  99 

to  be  able  to  separate  from  the  tangled  web  in  a 
particular  situation  those  factors  that  are  due  to 
the  special  age  and  those  that  are  characteristic 
of  all  time.  We  ought  to  be  able  to  separate 
the  factors  in  a  given  activity  that  are  due  to  the 
operation  of  temporary  conditions  in  the  natural 
or  social  environment  from  those  that  are  due  to 
the  permanent  forces  of  the  environment  or  to 
the  organism  itself.  Unless  we  are  able  to  dis- 
tinguish the  transient  from  the  permanent  factors 
in  experience,  we  are  scarcely  in  a  position  to 
utilize  the  stores  that  the  past  has  to  yield. 

Whatever  activity  we  consider,  of  whatever 
age,  if  it  be  a  significant  one  we  find  that  it  is 
because  of  its  relation  to  its  natural  and  social 
environment.  Any  activity  is  what  it  is  largely 
because  of  the  natural  and  social  environment 
in  which  it  is  placed.  History  is  full  of  records 
of  abortive  inventions,  which  were  such  not  be- 
cause of  the  thought  in  the  mind  of  the  inventor, 
but  because  there  was  not  present  a  social  need, 
or  because  there  was  not  present  the  material 
by  means  of  which  the  thought  could  secure  ade- 
quate expression.  It  was  not  an  accident  that 
the  mariner's  compass,  gunpowder,  and  the  print- 
ing press  appeared  when  they  did.  Neither  was 
it  an  accident  that  the  pyramids  were  erected  in 
regions  abounding  with  limestone  and  syenite,  or 
that  sculpture  developed  so  remarkably  in  the 


100  THE  PLACE  OF  INDUSTRIES 

region  containing  the  whitest,  finest,  and  richest 
marble  quarries  in  the  world.  The  permanent 
element  in  all  these  activities  is  the  fact  that  the 
activity  is  directly  related  to  the  natural  and 
social  environment  of  the  age  and  not  to  that  of 
some  other  place  or  time. 

Let  us  apply  this  truth  to  the  education  of  the 
child.  How  are  we  to  make  sure  that  the  child's 
activities  are  with  reference  to  his  own  environ- 
ment ?  The  question  of  natural  environment 
presents  no  serious  difficulty ;  what  constitutes 
the  child's  social  environment  is  a  question  that 
the  American  people  have  not  yet  settled.  That 
it  has  been  rapidly  extended  in  the  past  two 
decades  is  very  apparent ;  that  it  will  gradually 
be  simplified  in  the  future  is  probable.  We 
would  not,  like  Rousseau,  remove  the  child  from 
almost  all  social  influences,  but  we  would  guard 
him  from  the  highly  artificial  stimuli  of  our  com- 
plex social  life.  To  present  the  child  with  such 
complex  stimuli  at  the  stage  when  he  naturally 
responds  in  a  simple  and  direct  way,  is  to  force 
upon  him  prematurely  a  complex  reaction.  It  is 
a  question  of  premature  specialization.  The  type 
of  the  child's  social  relations  may  be  sought  in 
his  spontaneous  activities  and  in  the  typical 
activities  of  the  earlier  stages  of  culture.  The 
particular  manifestation  of  this  type  must  be  de- 
termined not  by  the  past,  nor  by  the  standards 


IN  ELEMENTAR  Y  EDUGA  TlON          I  $  I 

of  adult  life,  but  by  the  social  needs  of  the  child 
of  today. 

It  must  not  be  forgotten  that  that  which  satis- 
fies the  child's  need  of  play  is  as  much  the 
satisfaction  of  his  social  need  as  that  which  satis- 
fies a  serious  need  in  the  life  of  an  adult.  The 
demand  that  the  activity  be  related  to  the  social 
needs  of  the  child  must  then  be  interpreted  so  as 
to  afford  ample  room  for  the  satisfaction  of  the 
need  of  play. 

Taking  into  consideration  the  transformations 
that  have  taken  place  with  reference  to  the 
psychical  attitudes,  we  may  conclude  that  with 
reference  to  the  child  we  have  separated  the 
transient  from  the  permanent  when  we  have 
selected  from  an  experience  that  which  appeals 
to  the  emotional  attitude  most  in  need  of  devel- 
opment, and  when  we  have  provided  an  oppor- 
tunity for  the  child  to  make  use  of  his  envi- 
ronment in  responding  to  the  stimulus.  When 
the  child  manifests  an  attitude  corresponding  to 
the  activities  of  a  simpler  stage  of  life,  if  he  be 
encouraged  to  exploit  his  environment  with  ref- 
erence to  satisfying  this  dominant  instinct,  and 
if  the  experience  thus  gained  be  enriched  by  the 
race  experience  to  which  it  is  a  parallel,  he  is 
making  vital  relations  with  his  own  natural  en- 
vironment and  constructing  such  a  social  one  as 
corresponds  to  his  power  of  appreciation.  Atten- 


THE 'PLACE  OF  INDUSTRIES 

tion  directed  to  normal  ways  of  utilizing  the  ener- 
gies of  the  child  will  prevent  an  immense  amount 
of  mischief,  which  is  the  result  of  unemployed  or 
misdirected  energy.  The  statement  that  the 
child's  activities  should  be  with  reference  to  his 
own  natural  environment  should  not  be  construed 
to  mean  that  the  world  beyond  the  child's  sense 
perception  should  be  closed  to  him,  but  rather 
that  he  utilize  his  own  environment  in  his  attempt 
to  understand  that  which  is  beyond  the  range  of 
his  senses.  The  form  of  the  problem  and  its 
general  character  persist ;  the  content  is  subject 
to  change. 

The  socializing  power  that  comes  from  a  well- 
directed  study  of  the  past  is  secured  chiefly 
through  the  recognition  of  the  principle  that  in  the 
adaptation  of  the  materials  of  the  past  such  a  con- 
densation of  the  experience  of  ages  should  be 
telescoped  into  the  activities  of  a  few  hours  as 
corresponds  to  the  parallel  changes  in  the  child's 
attitudes  with  reference  to  their  more  instinctive 
origin.  To  attempt  to  carry  the  child  through 
the  actual  stages  of  racial  development  in  a  mi- 
nute way  would  be  to  arrest  development ;  the 
child  represents  something  of  the  present  as  well 
as  of  the  past.  Although  the  child  enters  sym- 
pathetically into  the  problems  of  primitive  life, 
he  never  for  a  moment  identifies  himself  with  the 
people  except  in  a  dramatic  way.  He  is  looking 


IN  ELEMENTARY  EDUCA  TION          103 

down  from  above,  and  he  knows  it.  At  the  same 
time  he  is  leading  up  to  a  fuller  realization  of 
forces  in  his  own  life  which,  hitherto,  have  been 
unrelated. 

It  is  important  also  in  making  use  of  the  ma- 
terials of  the  past  that  we  distinguish  between 
the  experiences  of  free  and  slave  peoples.  While 
it  is  instructive  to  disopver  how  slavery  arose, 
and  under  what  conditions  it  developed,  it  is 
surely  not  the  part  of  wisdom  to  attempt  to  per- 
petuate such  conditions ;  we  should  rather  seek 
to  avoid  them. 

In  seeking  in  the  past  for  typical  activities  to 
be  adapted  to  educational  purposes  it  is  impor- 
tant to  bear  in  mind  that  while  the  child  is  still 
in  the  stage  of  undeveloped  technique,  a  highly 
educative  value  may  be  secured  by  exercise  in 
the  simple  house  industries,  if  only  the  simple 
technical  processes  involved  are  applied  "  in  the 
simplest  and  at  the  same  time  most  comprehen- 
sive manner."1  As  the  child  develops  in  techni- 
cal skill  he  may  be  introduced  to  more  and  more 
complicated  tools,  but  at  no  time  should  the 
complexity  of  the  technique  that  is  represented 
by  the  tool  be  such  as  to  destroy  the  rela- 
tion that  should  always  be  preserved  between 
the  skill  of  the  child  and  the  character  of  his 
tools. 

•CARL  BUCHER,  Industrial  Evolution,  p.  42. 


1 04  THE  PLA  CE  OF  IND  USTRIES 

With  these  more  general  statements  regarding 
the  limits  within  which  racial  experiences  may 
be  utilized  for  educational  ends,  let  us  pass  to  the 
more  practical  consideration  of  the  character  of 
the  materials  adapted  to  the  psychical  attitudes 
of  the  successive  stages  of  child  life. 

STAGE    OF    INFANCY. 

The  most  fundamental  steps  in  the  establish- 
ment of  community  life  have  ever  been  those  of 
establishing  helpful  relations  with  one's  environ- 
ment. How  to  come  into  sympathetic  relations 
with  the  earth  and  its  raw  materials,  how  to  estab- 
lish helpful  relations  with  neighboring  peoples, 
are  problems  that  all  people  who  have  advanced 
have  had  to  face.  The  solutions  of  these  prob- 
lems furnish  the  foundation  upon  which  civiliza- 
tion rests.  Just  because  the  scientific  interests  are 
not  yet  differentiated  from  the  industrial,  because 
the  intellectual  interests  are  not  differentiated 
from  the  practical,  because  the  emotional  ele- 
ment is  not  yet  free  to  express  itself  on  its  own 
account,  there  is  no  separation  between  industry, 
science,  and  art.  Those  interests  which  corre- 
spond most  closely  to  the  scientific  interest  find 
in  industry  their  excuse  for  being ;  those  which 
correspond  most  closely  to  the  later  differentiated 
art  interests  are  present  at  this  time  as  a  quality 
corresponding  to  an  attitude  of  mind. 


IN  ELEMENTAR  Y  ED  UCA  TION          1 0  5 

If  by  the  scientific  attitude  is  meant  the  desire 
to  discover  facts  and  to  verify  principles,  it  does 
not  appear  before  the  period  of  adolescence,  and 
probably  not  until  that  stage  is  well  advanced.  If, 
however,  the  scientific  attitude  is  construed  as 
meaning  a  phase  of  experience  that  is  not  freed 
from  the  social  and  practical  needs  of  the  child, 
yet,  when  taken  in  such  relations,  has  a  profound 
significance,  the  case  is  different. 

The  first  efforts  of  the  infant  are  with  reference 
to  his  environment.  And  although  he  is  confined 
by  the  necessities  of  the  case  to  a  limited  space,  and 
obliged  to  use  his  hands  to  assist  in  locomotion, 
no  one  doubts  the  thoroughness  of  his  exploita- 
tion. Like  primeval  man,  who  has  not  yet  devel- 
oped free  hands  and  an  erect  posture,  he  is  unable 
to  use  tools.  His  only  tools  are  in  his  body,  and 
he  is  just  beginning  to  learn  their  use.  The 
motive  power  at  his  disposal  is  furnished  by  his 
own  muscles.  His  first  activities  are  largely  in- 
stinctive ;  but  he  soon  begins  the  process  of 
experimentation  by  means  of  which  the  inherited 
instincts,  so  well  fitted  to  serve  a  few  needs, 
become  broken  up  so  as  to  meet  the  demands  of 
many.  The  achievements  of  early  infancy,  which 
lasts  until  about  the  age  of  two  and  one-half  years, 
are  the  co-ordination  of  the  reflexes  connected 
with  the  various  senses,  a  ready  response  to  sense 
stimuli,  the  acquisition  of  milk-teeth  which  affect 


106  THE  PLACE  OF  INDUSTRIES 

the  problem  of  nutrition,  and  the  erect  posture 
which  relieves  the  hands  from  the  function  of 
locomotion  and  sets  them  free  for  higher  pur- 
poses. 

During  the  period  of  later  infancy,1  which  lasts 
from  two  and  a  half  years  until  seven  or  eight,  the 
child  begins  to  exploit  an  environment  which 
takes  in  not  only  the  home  and  its  immediate 
surroundings,  but  the  school  and  the  immediate 
neighborhood.  The  tendency  to  run  away  which 
has  been  noticed  in  the  third  year  is  an  expres- 
sion of  the  disposition  to  explore  the  environ- 
ment. 

Later  infancy  is  pre-eminently  the  period  of 
play,  and  it  is  for  the  satisfaction  of  the  play 
instincts  that  the  environment  is  exploited.  The 
child's  interest  in  a  snowstorm  is  largely  bound 
up  with  the  pleasurable  experiences  of  sight  and 
touch  which  he  experiences  if  allowed  to  be  out 
of  doors  while  it  is  snowing ;  or  it  may  be  the 
anticipation  of  the  delight  of  playing  snowball, 
making  a  snow  man,  or  rolling  and  tumbling  in 
the  snow  without  any  further  object  than  the 
pleasure  the  activity  affords.  The  changing  phe- 
nomena of  the  seasons  are  significant  to  the  child 
of  this  period  chiefly  because  of  their  relation  to 

1  The  classifications  of  the  stages  of  psychical  development  fol- 
lowed is  that  given  by  Professor  Dewey  in  his  syllabus  of  Educa- 
tional Psychology,  pp.  8-10. 


o-   a 

ss 

A* 


IN  ELEMENTARY  EDUCA TION          10? 

his  play.  To  lay  hold  of  this  interest,  to  direct 
it  so  that  it  will  lead  to  useful  ends,  to  enrich  the 
narrow  personal  experience  by  that  of  the  group, 
and  to  supplement  both  by  stories  of  animals  and 
of  people  whose  activities  are  conditioned  by  the 
phenomenon  under  consideration  at  the  time,  is 
the  part  of  parents  and  teachers.  The  impulse  to 
utilize  the  results  of  the  more  striking  natural 
phenomena  is  so  strong  that  it  will  assert  itself  in 
spite  of  repressive  measures.  Observation  seems 
to  indicate  that  this  is  not  true  with  respect  to 
the  utilization  of  the  more  constant  elements  of 
environment. 

The  development  of  the  factory  system,  by 
crowding  people  into  large  cities,  has  tended 
to  deprive  many  children  of  the  opportunity 
to  come  into  close  contact  with  nature.  But 
even  under  more  favorable  conditions  there  has 
been  a  tendency  in  the  home,  as  well  as  in  the 
school,  to  superimpose  upon  the  child  empty 
reproductions  of  complex  social  life.  This  is 
nowhere  more  clearly  illustrated  than  in  the  do- 
main of  children's  amusements.  The  marvelous 
increase  in  the  number  and  variety  of  children's 
toys  is  a  subject  worthy  of  more  serious  attention 
than  it  has  yet  received.  Even  a  superficial  ob- 
servation of  these  toys  indicates  that  many  of 
them  are  of  such  a  character  as  to  leave  the  child 
comparatively  passive.  The  activity  is  handed 


108  THE  PLACE  OF  INDUSTRIES 

over  to  a  mechanism.  The  child  gets  his  emo- 
tional excitement  without  regard  to  its  legitimate 
expenditure.  The  balance  between  the  sensory 
and  motor  nerves  is  destroyed,  the  organic  cir- 
cuit is  broken,  the  tendency  to  rely  on  an  exter- 
nal stimulus  is  fostered.  The  mere  fact  that  the 
stimulus  calls  for  so  little  motor  response  is  suf- 
ficient to  explain  its  temporary  effect  and  the 
constant  demand  for  some  new  means  of  stimu- 
lation. 

Could  parents  and  teachers  take  even  a  few 
minutes  a  day  or  a  few  hours  a  week  to  help 
children  to  see  the  possibilities  in  a  pile  of  sand, 
an  unoccupied  piece  of  ground,  the  tough  grasses 
and  woody  fibers  growing  in  the  waste  places,  a 
neighboring  tree,  dry-goods  boxes,  paper  and 
paste,  in  short,  in  any  of  the  legitimate  materials 
in  the  environment  of  the  child,  there  would  be  a 
saving  of  time  for  adults  and  a  more  normal  and 
happy  growth  in  the  child.  Such  conditions  would 
afford  a  normal  outlet  for  the  constructive  in- 
stincts, which  need  nutrition  at  this  period  when 
the  hands  are  first  free  to  serve  their  needs. 

The  injurious  effect  that  our  highly  organized 
social  environment  is  apt  to  exert  upon  the  child 
may  be  largely  nullified  if,  at  this  time,  the  child 
be  supplied  with  sufficient  wholesome  nutrition 
for  his  impulses  that  are  striving  for  expression. 
There  is  no  doubt  that  the  child  gets  greater 


IN  ELEMENT AR  Y  ED  UCA  TION          I OQ 

satisfaction  in  activities  that  are  normal  to  his 
stage  of  development  than  in  those  for  which  he 
is  not  yet  ready.  But  if  prevented  in  any  way 
from  realizing  himself  through  normal  activities, 
he  inevitably  occupies  himself  with  that  which 
cannot  fail  to  harm  him  because  of  its  lack  of 
adjustment  to  his  needs. 

In  the  earlier  part  of  this  period,  personal 
experience  is  enlarged  by  participating  in  the  life 
of  the  group,  and  by  stories  of  people  and  ani- 
mals under  similar  situations  ;  in  the  later  part, 
it  may  be  enriched  by  leading  out  from  those 
activities  of  the  child  which  are  a  crude  imita- 
tion of  the  activities  of  adults  about  him,  to  the 
activities  of  people  in  a  similar  natural  environ- 
ment—  so  far  as  climatic  conditions  are  con- 
cerned— but  a  simpler  social  environment. 
Agricultural  life,  preferably  that  before  the 
introduction  of  complicated  machinery,  and 
simple  village  life  afford  excellent  materials  for 
this  purpose.  On  the  other  hand,  experience  of 
this  period  may  be  enriched  by  leading  out  from 
the  artificial  products  that  are  significant  to  the 
child,  to  the  people  engaged  in  the  preparation 
and  transportation  of  the  same.  This  makes 
more  vigorous  demands  upon  the  child's  con- 
structive imagination  than  the  preceding,  but  it 
seems  to  meet  a  demand  on  the  part  of  a  child 
of  six  years  for  the  links  that  unite  him  to  that 


1 1 0  THE  PLA  CE  OF  IND  USTRIES 

which  is  beyond  the    limits    of   his    sense  per- 
ception. 

Throughout  this  period  the  child  shows  a 
strong  interest  in  animals  and  plants.  He  is 
interested  in  some  animals  because  they  are  his 
playfellows.  It  is  largely  a  social  interest.  He 
is  interested  in  others  because  he  wants  to  see 
what  they  will  do.  Seldom,  under  ordinary  con- 
ditions, does  the  interest  at  this  period  have  any 
relation  to  the  question  of  food.  The  child's 
interest  in  animals  can  be  most  profitably  utilized 
in  home-life  on  the  farm,  but  even  the  crowded 
part  of  a  city  can  offer  something  to  the  child  in 
this  respect.  It  is  an  easy  matter  to  gather 
cocoons,  and  their  transformation  into  moths  or 
butterflies  is  a  wonderful  revelation  to  the  little 
ones  who  are  fortunate  enough  to  see  it.  Canaries 
are  always  of  interest  to  children,  who  well  may  be 
allowed  to  care  for  them.  Fish,  frogs,  and  other 
animal  forms  may  be  brought  into  the  schoolroom 
for  a  time  if  aquaria  are  available.  An  occasional 
visit  of  a  domestic  animal  is  welcomed  by  the  chil- 
dren. The  value  of  the  visits  of  animal  friends 
depends  largely  upon  the  attention  given  by  the 
teacher  and  children  to  the  conditions  which  will 
provide  for  the  needs  of  the  animals  during  their 
stay.  To  hire  a  man  to  do  all  the  work  neces- 
sary in  order  to  bring  an  animal  into  the  school- 
room is  to  deprive  the  child  of  the  chief  value  of 


IN  ELEMENTARY  EDUCA  TION          1 1 1 

the  occurrence.  It  would  seem  to  be  a  better 
plan  for  the  teacher  and  children  to  consider  the 
matter  together,  to  decide  what  animal  they 
should  like  to  have  in  the  room  for  a  few  days, 
to  find  out  what  animals  are  available,  how  they 
are  living  now,  what  they  will  need  if  they  come, 
and  what  provisions  can  be  made  to  satisfy  these 
needs.  If,  after  such  conferences  and  investiga- 
tions as  are  necessary  in  order  to  determine  these 
points,  the  children  are  disposed  to  undertake 
the  responsibilities,  they  may  be  given  such 
assistance  as  may  be  needed  in  order  to  make 
everything  ready.  By  putting  the  subject  in 
this  light  the  children  readily  see  the  need  of 
doing  what  is  done ;  and  if  failure  to  meet 
their  responsibilities  in  regard  to  the  care  of  the 
animal  results  in  its  return  to  its  native  environ- 
ment, they  can  readily  see  the  justice  of  the  act. 
By  emphasizing  the  thought  of  care  and  pro- 
tection in  this  practical  way  the  child's  instincts, 
which  at  times  lead  to  cruelty,  become  tempered 
by  the  social  forces  of  present  life.  His  instincts 
with  reference  to  animal  life  are  recognized  suffi- 
ciently to  give  him  satisfaction,  while  social 
forces  operate  sufficiently  to  adapt  their  expres- 
sion to  the  social  life  of  the  community  in  which 
he  lives.  These  habits  are  of  more  importance 
than  the  knowledge  that  he  gains,  though  that 
may  be  considerable. 


1 1 2  THE  PLA  CE  OF  IND  USTRIES 

The  child's  interest  in  the  plant-world  and  its 
products  is  much  more  closely  related  to  the 
food  interest  than  his  interest  in  animals.  The 
country  child  very  early  learns  where  to  look  for 
the  ripe  berries,  if  he  has  not  already  exhausted 
the  crop  by  prematurely  gathering  it.  He  learns 
where  to  look  for  nuts  and  acorns,  where  the 
wintergreens  grow,  and  he  finds  it  convenient  to 
make  friendly  visits  to  his  neighbors  during  the 
watermelon  or  plum  season.  His  interest  in  a 
tree  is  because  of  its  fruits,  because  it  is  a  favora- 
ble place  to  put  up  a  swing,  because  it  is  so 
shaped  that  he  can  readily  climb  it,  or  perhaps 
because  it  has  a  mysterious  hollow  at  its  base 
into  which  he  can  poke  countless  objects.1  His 
interest  in  topographical  features  of  his  environ- 
ment are  with  reference  to  his  own  activities. 
He  likes  to  climb  a  high  hill,  partly  because  of 
the  effort,  partly  because  of  the  view  afforded, 
and  partly  because  he  likes  to  run  down  it  in  sum- 
mer and  slide  down  in  the  winter.  The  clouds 
are  of  interest  in  so  far  as  they  seem  to  represent 
processions  of  strange  animals,  and  the  beautiful 
colors  of  the  sunset  are  interesting  as  suggesting 

1 1  remember  distinctly  how  my  sister  and  the  group  of  girls  to 
which  she  belonged  kept  me  and  my  mates,  about  six  years  old, 
busied  during  the  recesses  at  school  for  weeks  gathering  oak- 
balls,  which  they  borrowed  from  us  under  the  name  of  hens'  eggs, 
and  which  we  afterward  found  they  had  poked  down  such  a  hole 
as  soon  as  they  got  *:hem. 


IN  ELEMENTARY  ED UCA  TION          1 1 3 

colors  of  imaginary  dresses.  To  disregard  these 
instinctive  attitudes  in  dealing  with  such  sub- 
jects in  the  school  is  to  fail  to  appeal  to  the 
whole  child.  Without  exception  the  interest  of 
the  child  of  this  period  in  environment  is  with 
reference  to  his  own  activities,  and  this  relation 
must  be  recognized  in  our  courses  of  study  and 
methods  of  teaching  before  we  strike  at  the  root 
of  the  question. 

With  the  use  of  free  hands  the  child  begins 
to  show  interest  in  construction,  but  his  con- 
structions at  this  time  are  crude.  In  a  general 
way,  the  child  of  this  period  corresponds  to 
the  stage  of  racial  development  in  which 
acquisition  of  products  from  the  natural  re- 
sources was  but  meagerly  supplemented  by  the 
more  distinctly  industrial  processes.  The  larger 
co-ordinations  are  sufficiently  developed  to  de- 
mand expression,  but  the  development  of  the  hand 
at  this  time  does  not  warrant  the  use  of  many 
tools.  The  imperative  demands  of  touch  suggest 
that  the  first  work  in  constructive  lines  should  af- 
ford ample  opportunity  for  the  direct  contact  of 
the  hands  with  the  materials  without  the  interven- 
tion of  tools.  Sand  and  clay  are  probably  the  best 
plastic  materials  for  this  period,  but  even  clay  is 
apt  to  make  too  large  demands  upon  the  fingers 
until  the  sixth  year. 

It  is  a  significant  fact,  when  considered  with 


1 1 4  THE  PLA  CE  OF  IND  USTRIES 

reference  to  racial  development,  that  the  serious 
activities  that  may  be  used  to  advantage  in  the 
kindergarten,  in  contrast  with  those  which  are 
largely  bound  up  with  the  make-believe  element, 
nearly  all  cluster  about  the  subject  of  food. 
Children  in  the  kindergarten  take  delight  in  the 
care  of  plants ;  they  are  interested  in  cooking 
simple  foods  ;  and  if  their  instinctive  efforts, 
which  are  so  apt  to  result  in  "  mussing  about " 
when  left  uncontrolled,  are  directed  with  refer- 
ence to  present  social  conditions,  habits  may  be 
grafted  upon  them  at  this  time  more  easily  than 
at  later  periods.  The  same  is  true  of  washing 
dishes,  sweeping,  dusting,  arranging  utensils  in 
an  orderly  way,  and  other  similar  activities. 

Activities  that  are  related  to  questions  of 
clothing  and  shelter  find  expression  in  a  more 
imaginary  way.  This  seems  to  indicate  that  the 
child,  as  well  as  the  race,  takes  a  serious  interest 
in  the  activities  connected  with  food  earlier  than 
in  those  connected  with  shelter  and  clothing.  The 
interest  in  shelter  is  best  expressed  by  the  child 
of  this  period  by  means  of  building-blocks  which 
afford  freedom  of  movement  and  quick  results. 
The  adaptation  of  a  dry-goods  box  to  the  pur- 
pose of  a  doll's  house  is  suitable  for  this  period, 
and  in  its  furnishings  admits  of  a  variety  of 
activities. 

The  wisdom  of  allowing  the  use  of  tools  in 


IN  ELEMENTARY  ED UCA  TION          1 1 $ 

shaping  wood  at  this  time  is  a  much  disputed 
point.  Where  they  are  used  the  work  seems  to 
be  justified  by  the  joy  that  the  child  takes  in  the 
full,  free  movements  that  call  into  play  the  whole 
organism.  The  plane  and  saw,  if  adapted  in 
weight  and  size  to  the  powers  of  the  child,  afford 
greater  freedom  of  movement  than  work  in  clay 
as  ordinarily  introduced.  There  seems  to  be  little 
doubt  that  the  use  of  hammer  and  nails  should 
be  postponed  till  the  next  period,  especially  since 
glue  serves  the  purpose  so  much  more  readily 
and  is  more  like  the  paste  that  most  children 
are  accustomed  to  use  in  connection  with  paper- 
cutting  and  cardboard  construction.  Here  again 
the  order  of  procedure  is  similar  to  that  of  the 
race,  which  used  pitch,  glue,  and  sinew  for  ages 
before  nails  of  any  kind  were  invented. 

The  earliest  manifestation  of  interest  in  cloth- 
ing seems  to  be  associated  with  the  self-exhibi- 
tive  instinct.  The  child  requires  an  opportunity 
to  express  himself  in  this  way  in  order  to  de- 
velop normally.  The  fact  that  adults  recount 
such  early  childhood  experiences  so  seldom  is 
partly  accounted  for  by  the  fact  that  the  instinct 
is  one  of  the  most  permanent  ones  we  possess. 
Doubtless  all  people  can  recount  many  experi- 
ences of  this  kind  that  they  have  never  told  to 
any  one.  Just  as  the  savage  enlarged  his  person- 
ality by  the  use  of  feathers  and  paint,  so  we  all 


1 1 6  THE  PLA  CE  OF  IND  USTRIES 

, 

from  our  earliest  years  are  more  or  less  depend- 
ent upon  similar  means  in  order  to  realize  our  full 
personality.  The  effect  of  proper  clothing  and 
ornament  upon  the  behavior  of  the  child  is  very 
marked. 

Our  own  habits  of  dress  represent  activities  so 
far  beyond  the  child's  power  of  execution  that 
the  most  that  he  can  do  at  this  period,  in  this  con- 
nection, is  to  illustrate  the  simpler  processes.  If 
the  first  crude  attempts  at  weaving  are  with  refer- 
ence to  making  a  blanket  for  a  doll's  bed,  there 
will  be  a  motive  for  an  otherwise  aimless  activity. 
If  weaving  is  attempted  it  should  be  with  coarse 
fibers,  so  as  not  to  make  too  severe  demands 
upon  the  activities  of  the  child.  Upon  the  whole 
it  would  seem  that  there  should  be  but  little  work 
in  the  nature  of  weaving  or  sewing  until  the 
child  is  at  least  seven  years  old.  It  seems  better 
to  let  the  child's  interest  in  clothing  express 
itself  in  dressing  and  undressing  dolls,  in  washing 
and  possibly  in  ironing  these  articles  of  dress,  in 
stringing  beads,  or  in  related  activities  that  make 
little  demand  for  precise  co-ordinations. 

Up  to  the  sixth  year  when  the  object  begins  to 
stand  out  more  clearly  in  the  child's  mind,  when 
the  inner  and  the  outer  begin  to  differentiate, 
there  is  no  distinction  between  work  and  play. 
To  be  sure  there  are  differences  in  activities  very 
early,  but  if  not  fettered  by  external  conditions 


IN  ELEMENTAR  Y  ED  UCA  TION          1 1 7 

the  activity  is  equally  free  play,  whether  it 
serves  the  purpose  of  utility  in  the  sense  of 
the  adult,  whether  it  serves  the  purposes  of  play, 
as  making  a  doll's  house,  or  whether  it  is  purely 
imaginary  as  in  the  case  of  dramatic  play.  It  is 
important  that  the  child  get  his  full  share  of 
each  variety  of  play  and  that  its  free  character  be 
maintained. 

One  function  of  dramatic  play  is  its  freedom 
from  all  limitations.  It  is  an  expression  of  the 
child's  active  self.  "Play,"  writes  W.  T.  Harris, 
"undertakes  to  reproduce  the  external  semblance 
of  the  fact  without  the  causal  chain  that  makes 
the  essential  element  in  it.  The  farmer  mows 
with  a  steel  scythe  and  cuts  grass.  The  child 
mows  with  a  wooden  scythe  and  cuts  no  grass. 
He  merely  '  makes  believe'  to  cut  grass."1 

While  dramatic  play  is  the  most  free  of  any  of 
the  varieties  mentioned  and  is  unsurpassed  for 
purposes  of  enlarging  the  personality,  it  is  fortu- 
nate that  the  child  has  at  his  command  a  form  in 
direct  contrast  to  it,  which  subjects  him  to  certain 
wholesome  limits.  In  a  measure  such  play  ac- 
tivities as  playing  with  dolls,  and  making  doll's 
houses,  form  an  intermediate  link  between  the 
dramatic  play  and  the  free  play  of  work.  The 
interaction  of  these  different  forms  serves  to  se- 

1  W.  T.  HARRIS,  "The   Place  _of  Geography  in  Elementary 
Schools,"  The  Forum,  Vol.  XXXII  p.  539. 


1 1 8  THE  PLA  CE  OF  IND  USTRIES 

cure  a  richer  experience  and  a  wider  range  of 
activities  than  could  be  obtained  by  the  use  of 
a  more  limited  range.  The  chief  value  of  the 
play  of  actual  work  of  this  period  is  that  it 
serves  as  an  easy  transition  to  the  later  stage. 
When  this  truth  is  more  fully  realized  and  taken 
into  account  in  education  there  will  be  fewer 
shocks  as  the  child  passes  from  one  stage  to 
another. 

What  Mr.  Mallery  writes  concerning  the  panto- 
mime of  savages  applies  equally  well  to  the  child 
at  this  stage.  "  Pantomime  acts  movements,  re- 
produces forms  and  positions,  presents  pictures, 
and  manifests  emotions  with  greater  realization 
than  any  other  mode  of  utterance."  *  The  greater 
reality  of  this  mode  of  expression  is  due  to  its 
dependence  upon  the  muscular  sense,  which  is  the 
most  deep-seated  and  generic  of  any  of  the 
senses,  and  the  one  by  which  the  perceptions  of 
sight  and  hearing  have  to  be  verified.  It  is  by 
the  use  of  this  foundation  sense  that  the  child  is 
best  able  to  acquire  images.  So  far  as  the  child's 
pantomimes  and  dramatic  plays  are  spontaneous, 
they  have  a  real  significance.  It  is  the  purpose 
of  the  school,  however,  to  lay  hold  of  these  spon- 
taneous plays  and  freight  them  with  a  richer 
meaning.  To  allow  them  to  remain  in  the  purely 

'GARRICK  MALLERY,   "Gesture  Language,"  First  Report  of 
the  Bureau  of  Ethnology,  p.  281. 


IN  ELEMENTAR  Y  ED  UCA  TION          1 1 9 

instinctive  form  is  to  forego  the  educational  op- 
portunity. 

The  instinctive  expression  indicates  the  type 
of  activity  for  which  the  child  is  ripe.  How 
much  content  the  activity  should  have,  how  the 
child  is  to  gain  this  content,  are  important  ques- 
tions at  this  stage.  In  cases  where  the  child 
dramatizes  what  he  has  previously  performed  in  a 
real  way,  there  is  no  need  of  attempting  to  fur- 
nish him  with  a  fuller  content  except  as  occasion 
is  taken  to  connect  his  personal  experience  with 
that  of  others.  It  does  seem  worth  the  while  to 
enrich  it  in  this  way.  It  is  one  of  the  means  of 
enlarging  the  self.  In  case  the  child  is  drama- 
tizing an  industrial  activity  that  he  has  observed 
it  is  easy  to  determine  from  his  attitudes  whether 
the  activity  has  more  significance  than  the  stim- 
ulation afforded  to  the  physical  and  emotional 
nature.  If  it  has  not  there  is  need  of  teaching 
at  this  point.  If  the  teaching  can  be  by  means 
of  closer  observation  and  conversation  with  the 
worker,  so  much  the  better;  if  this  plan  is  not 
feasible  the  teaching  may  be  by  means  of  stories, 
pictures, and  the  clear  presentation  of  conditions 
which  the  child  is  able  to  grasp. 

The  child  can  be  trained  to  more  rhythmical 
action  if  he  is  stimulated  by  music  which  suggests 
the  rhythm,  but  this  use  of  music  does  not  seem 
to  be  justified  where  the  purpose  is  educational. 


120  THE  PLACE  OF  INDUSTRIES 

The  music  may  stimulate  the  blood  so  as  to  secure 
a  corresponding  rhythm  in  the  movement  of  the 
muscles  quite  apart  from  any  idea  of  the  activity 
represented.  It  acts  somewhat  as  a  hypnotic 
suggestion.  If  the  child  is  not  able  to  dramatize 
an  activity  in  a  rhythmical  manner  without  being 
stimulated  and  regulated  by  music  supplied  by  an 
adult,  it  is  not  worth  his  while  to  do  it.  By  this 
it  is  not  meant  that  music  has  no  place  in  the 
child's  dramatic  activities.  It  has.  When  an 
activity  which  at  first  was  conscious  has  become 
automatic  and  is  used  for  purposes  of  recreation, 
music  does  not  interfere  with  the  purpose  of  the 
activity.  Again,  if  the  child  spontaneously  de- 
velops the  music  with  the  activity,  it  has  a  natu- 
ral place.  The  race  parallel  is  suggestive  here, 
but  one  must  be  careful  to  draw  conclusions  for 
the  education  of  the  young  people  in  a  demo- 
cratic society  from  the  experience  of  free  people 
and  not  from  that  of  slaves. 

There  are  many  records  of  the  use  of  music  as 
the  means  of  sustaining  and  regulating  the  activity 
of  free  workers,  but  except  in  prolonged  un- 
rhythmical activities  which  were  accompanied  by 
songs  having  no  other  relation  to  the  work  than 
that  of  relieving  its  tediousness,  the  music  was 
the  product  of  labor  cries,  commands,  or  the 
musical  sounds  of  the  work  tools.  It  was  devel- 
oped with  the  work  and  by  the  workers.  In  the 


IN  ELEMENTARY  ED UCA  TION          1 2 1 

case  of  slave  labor  it  was  very  different.  Here  the 
gang  of  workers  took  no  part  in  the  music.  The 
music  was  in  the  hands  of  a  band  or  a  slave 
driver,  and  was  used  to  stimulate  and  control 
the  laborers.  The  use  of  music  which  we  some- 
times make  as  a  means  of  controlling  activities 
of  children  in  an  external  way  is  not  the  only 
instance  in  which  we  have  failed  to  discriminate 
between  the  conditions  of  free  and  slave  labor. 

The  safest  course  in  regard  to  the  educational 
use  of  dramatic  play  seems  to  be  to  keep  such 
activity  in  close  connection  with  the  occupations 
observed  or  participated  in  by  the  children. 
Should  the  teacher  desire  to  make  use  of  the 
occupations  of  less  complex  social  conditions  she 
will  find  it  worth  the  while  to  introduce  the  pro- 
cess first  with  actual  materials.  It  is  important 
to  distinguish  between  activities  which  require 
co-operative  action  and  those  that  are  the  result 
of  individual  effort,  but  as  this  subject  is  treated 
in  another  place  it  may  be  left  here  without 
further  notice. 

STAGE    OF    TRANSITION    FROM    INFANCY  TO    CHILD- 
HOOD. 

The  eighth  year  is  a  period  of  transition  from 
infancy  to  childhood.  The  world  is  not  as  ob- 
jective as  it  is  a  little  later  nor  is  it  so  purely  sub- 
jective as  in  the  preceding  stage.  This  is  pre- 


1 2  2  THE  PLA  CE  OP  IND  US  TRIES 

eminently  the  time  for  making  the  transition 
from  play  to  the  more  serious  activities  of  child- 
hood. If  the  emotional  attitudes  are  not  trans- 
formed during  this  period  there  is  a  serious  loss 
in  the  vigor  of  life.  The  intellectual  powers  be- 
come stronger  at  this  time.  This  change  mani- 
fests itself  in  the  interest  the  child  takes  in  ad- 
justing means  to  ends,  which  becomes  so  strong 
that  the  child  is  able  to  conceive  with  clearness 
situations  which  previously  had  little  significance 
for  him.  He  is  able  to  take  more  factors  into 
account  and  to  establish  clearer  relations  between 
them. 

In  the  earlier  period,  the  child's  personal  ex- 
perience is  enriched  by  experiences  of  others  in  an 
environment  quite  similar,  in  most  respects,  to  his 
own.  Now  he  can  take  a  more  difficult  step. 
His  power  to  adjust  means  to  an  end  in  an  orderly 
way  suggests  the  possibility  of  his  beginning  to 
participate  in  the  experience  of  the  race  through 
its  successive  steps  in  the  conquest  of  nature  and 
in  the  upbuilding  of  society. 

It  would  be  possible  to  find  types  in  contem- 
porary life  of  all  but  the  lowest  stages  of  culture, 
and  it  may  be  that  such  types  may  be  used  at 
this  time  with  profit;  but  this  is  not  the  method 
here  suggested.  Partly  because  we  are  more  in- 
terested in  our  own  ancestry  than  in  that  of  other 
people,  partly  because  more  cumulative  results 


IN  ELEMENTARY  ED UCA  TION          1 2 3 

may  be  obtained  by  considering  the  evolution  of 
one  race  than  by  getting  more  static  conceptions 
of  several  different  ones,  partly  because  we  are 
not  so  much  concerned  with  the  situation  at  a 
given  stage  of  culture  as  we  are  in  the  method  by 
which  people  advanced  beyond  it,  the  enrich- 
ment of  the  child's  experience  in  this  year  is 
secured  by  the  use  of  the  experience  of  our  own 
ancestors  in  the  stages  of  savagery  and  barbarism. 
The  strong  contrasts  in  the  social  and  natural 
environment  to  the  child's  own  are  sufficient  to 
appeal  to  his  love  of  the  strange  while  the  like- 
ness to  his  own  is  maintained,  to  a  degree,  in 
respect  to  climatic  conditions  and  certain  forms 
of  plant  and  animal  life,  as  well  as  in  the  similar- 
ity of  race.  The  opportunities  such  materials 
afford  for  utilizing  the  emotional  attitudes  of  the 
child  in  the  service  of  an  all-round  growth  are 
numerous. 

Although  the  subject  of  primitive  industries  is 
presented  to  the  child  with  reference  to  the  life  of 
the  people  as  a  whole,  and  although  the  interest  is 
in  the  people  rather  than  in  any  particular  activity 
or  tool,  there  may  be  gradually  accumulated,  if 
the  subject  is  well  planned,  a  great  many  sequences 
illustrating  the  successive  steps  along  particular 
lines.  When  the  child  has  gained  sufficient 
experience  in  the  life  of  the  people  as  a  whole  to 
form  a  rich  background  for  differentiation,  he 


124  THE  PLACE  OF  INDUSTRIES 

may  be  encouraged  in  the  act  of  freeing  these 
sequences  from  their  social  setting,  not  in  order 
to  sever  their  connection  with  it,  but  to  make 
this  connection  more  vital.  As  particular  se- 
quences thus  become  differentiated  from  the 
whole  mass  of  experience,  and  as  the  child  seeks 
a  deeper  meaning  for  each  successive  step  than 
he  may  have  realized  when  the  subject  first 
attracted  his  attention,  he  naturally  sets  up  a 
return  movement  of  thought  to  the  mass  from 
which  the  sequence  was  differentiated.  In  this 
way  both  the  original  mass  and  the  particular 
sequence  become  clarified  and  enriched.  Such 
activities  serve  not  only  as  a  means  of  affording 
the  child  the  emotional  satisfaction  that  comes 
with  the  use  of  a  new  power,  but  as  a  means  of 
reviewing,  of  organizing  the  subject  in  a  manner 
sufficiently  definite  to  answer  the  needs  of  the 
child. 

The  spontaneous  hunting  plays  so  ^character- 
istic  of  several  years  of  child-life  may  be  turned 
to  profit  at  this  time.  They  suggest  not  that  the 
child  is  living  or  should  live  today  the  life  of  a 
hunter,  but  that  his  instinctive  emotional  atti- 
tudes are  nearly  the  same.  The  more  important 
difference  is  this  :  with  the  savage  the  response 
to  the  stimulus  was  a  serious  activity,  with  the 
child  it  is  an  idealized  one.  To  be  sure,  a  certain 
amount  of  the  child's  energy  finds  expression  in 


IN  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION          12$ 

a  real  way,  especially  if  he  lives  in  the  country, 
but  much  of  it  is  expressed  in  some  ideal  form. 
Stories  that  portray  contests  of  primitive  people 
with  wild  beasts  now  extinct  and  the  difficulties 
encountered  in  finding  food  and  protection  ap- 
peal to  the  ordinary  child  of  this  period  much 
more  forcibly  than  the  ordinary  events  that  take 
place  in  his  own  environment,  and  he  craves  for 
the  stimulus  that  they  afford. 

It  is  right  here  that  the  mistake  may  be  made 
of  simply  gratifying  the  child's  appetite  by  the 
use  of  stories.  To  do  this  would  be  to  promote 
the  separation  between  the  objective  and  the  sub- 
jective that  is  beginning  to  be  made.  The  pur- 
pose should  rather  be  at  this  time  to  help  the 
child  to  feel  if  not  to  know  the  essential  unity. 
For  this  reason  the  story  of  the  hunter  should  be 
related  to  the  child's  out-of-door  plays  in  such  a 
way  as  to  lead  him  to  exploit  his  natural  environ- 
ment with  reference  to  the  needs  of  the  ideal 
hunting  clan  in  which  he  has  become  interested. 
His  environment  now  takes  on  a  new  meaning. 
In  imagination  he  now  regards  it  as  his  one 
source  of  supply.  Nuts,  berries,  and  wild  grasses, 
which  have  always  interested  him,  now  take  on  a 
fuller  significance.  Stones  which  heretofore  have 
been  selected  chiefly  on  the  basis  of  their  color 
or  luster  now  are  chosen  with  reference  to  their 
adaptation  to  a  need.  For  this  reason  the  form 


1 26  THE  PLA  CE  OF  IND  USTRIES 

is  important ;  for  the  nearer  it  is  to  the  shape  of 
the  desired  weapon  or  implement,  the  less 
trouble  there  will  be  in  shaping  it.  But  the  prime 
consideration  in  selecting  a  stone  for  a  cutting 
implement  is  to  find  one  that  will  break  with  a 
sharp  edge  —  that  will  not  crumble  under  a  blow. 

The  child,  like  the  savage,  will  not  make  this 
discovery  in  his  first  attempt  to  make  a  weapon ; 
and  because  the  child's  activity  is  an  idealized 
reproduction  of  the  real  one  he  may  be  satisfied 
without  making  it  at  all.  This  is  where  he  needs 
to  be  reinforced  by  the  teacher.  She  may  give 
the  help  needed  by  means  of  a  story  or  by  set- 
ting forth  the  needs  of  the  primitive  people  more 
clearly.  Unless  in  some  way  she  helps  the  child 
to  realize  primitive  needs  and  guides  him  in  his 
efforts  to  utilize  his  own  environment  in  supply- 
ing them,  there  is  no  educational  value  to  the 
work.  It  is  a  question  of  indulging  the  instincts. 

The  topography  and  the  natural  resources  of  the 
immediate  environment  when  examined  by  the 
child  with  reference  to  their  adaptation  to  the 
needs  of  a  hunting,  a  fishing,  a  pastoral,  an  agricul- 
tural, a  mining,  or  a  trading  people,  take  on  a  new 
meaning.  The  fact  that  so  much  of  our  territory 
has  already  been  brought  under  cultivation  makes 
it  difficult  for  the  child  to  get  an  adequate  image 
of  what  it  was  under  primitive  conditions.  Yet 
if  such  opportunities  as  are  available  in  the 


IN  ELEMENTAR  Y  ED  UCA  TION          1 2  7 

line  of  exploitation  of  environment  are  used, 
and  if  the  experience  thus  gained  is  supplemented 
by  the  use  of  gesture,  pictures,  descriptions, 
drawings,  and  careful  reconstructions  of  typical 
areas,  so  as  to  show  not  only  the  topography, 
but  the  character  of  the  vegetation,  the  very  diffi- 
culty, instead  of  offering  a  real  obstacle,  is  a 
stimulus  to  self-activity  in  the  realization  of  an 
idea. 

By  utilizing  the  materials  that  are  almost  uni- 
versally available  to  those  who  are  able  to  recog- 
nize them,  the  child,  in  the  course  of  a  year's 
work,  can  realize  the  special  fitness  of  wooded 
hills  near  the  river,  and  probably  near  its  source, 
for  the  home  of  the  hunter ;  banks  of  the  river 
and  the  shores  of  the  sea  for  the  home  of  the 
fisherman  ;  the  uplands  and  open  plains  for  the 
home  of  the  shepherd  ;  the  fertile  river  valleys 
and  islands  for  the  home  of  the  farmer ;  the  moun- 
tainous places  for  the  home  of  the  miner  and 
metal  worker ;  the  harbor,  the  head  of  the  tide 
water,  the  bend  of  the  river,  the  fork,  the  fording 
place,  the  rapids  or  falls,  the  point  of  the  inter- 
section of  trails,  the  defiles,  the  mountain  passes, 
or  any  other  break  in  transportation  for  the  cen- 
ter of  the  trader.  He  can  realize  why  the  hunt- 
ing, fishing,  and  pastoral  peoples  are  compelled 
to  lead  a  migratory  life,  and  why  the  other  forms 
of  culture  begin  under  a  nomadic  form  ;  he  can 


1 2  8  THE  PLA  CE  OF  IND  USTRIES 

understand  better  than  before  why  habitations 
and  their  furnishings  were  of  such  a  temporary 
character. 

When  the  child  considers  the  causes  of  the 
migrations  of  animals  he  can  realize  the  signifi- 
cance of  the  change  of  seasons  in  relation  to  the 
activities  of  the  hunters.  When  he  considers 
that  man  made  friends  with  the  grass-eating 
animals  only  after  the  most  formidable  of  the 
beasts  of  prey  had  been  exterminated,  and  that 
the  grass-eating  animals  no  longer  had  to  supply 
food  to  so  large  a  number  of  beasts  of  prey,  he 
can  see  why  the  pastoral  people  could  live  on  a 
smaller  territory  than  the  hunting  people.  He 
can  see  that  agriculture,  of  which  he  found 
faint  traces  among  the  hunting,  fishing,  and 
pastoral  people,  could  not  develop  until  people 
acquired  a  settled  mode  of  life.  He  can  appre- 
ciate that  there  must  have  been  strong  forces 
operating  to  induce  men  to  give  up  a  mode  of 
life  to  which  they  were  accustomed,  a  mode  of 
life  that  afforded  freedom  from  arduous  toil, 
leisure  to  cultivate  the  arts,  and  the  strong  emo- 
tional excitement  accompanying  cattle-raids  and 
other  warlike  enterprises.  He  can  see  that  the 
weaker  and  less  warlike  tribes  were  forced 
to  seek  a  place  of  refuge  where  they  were 
obliged  to  depend  upon  the  more  systematic  cul- 
tivation of  plants,  with  which  the  women  of  their 


IN  ELEMENTARY  ED UCA  TION          1 29 

tribes  were  already  familiar ;  and  when  people 
found  that  it  was  profitable  to  cultivate  plants, 
they  would  be  apt  to  spare  the  lives  of  captives  in 
war  and  make  slaves  of  them.  He  can  see  why 
people  needed  forethought  in  order  to  live  by 
farming,  and  why  so  many  tribes  were  obliged  to 
go  back  to  the  hunting  and  fishing  stages,  or 
to  become  slaves  of  their  more  intelligent  and 
stronger  neighbors. 

In  this  time  of  conflict  the  child  can  readily 
understand  how  people  living  on  the  hills  might 
defend  themselves  by  means  of  hill  or  tree  forts  ; 
and  how  those  in  the  valleys  and  plains  might 
fortify  themselves  on  the  marshes,  islands,  pen- 
insulas, or  lakes.  He  can  see  how  these  means 
of  defense  arose  from  the  need  of  protecting  the 
settled  homes  of  agricultural  people,  or  in  the 
need  of  protecting  valuable  quarries  or  mines. 

If  suitable  material  is  in  the  hands  of  the 
teacher,  she  can  easily  lead  the  children  to  real- 
ize the  close  relation  existing  between  the 
prevailing  form  of  industry  and  the  form  of 
government  as  well  as  the  form  of  the  family. 
It  is  probably  sufficient  when  dealing  with  these 
questions  merely  to  make  the  proper  groupings 
of  facts,  allowing  the  truth,  which  is  held  in 
solution,  to  precipitate  in  its  own  good  time. 

The  child's  interest  in  metals  and  certain  tools 
made  of  them  and  his  intense  curiosity  in  regard 


1 30  THE  PLA  CE  OF  IND USTRIES 

to  such  mysterious  processes  as  those  by  which 
ores  are  reduced  and  metals  manufactured,  fur- 
nish the  motive  for  activities  by  means  of  which 
he  may  master  the  rudiments  of  these  arts.  His 
own  conjectures  regarding  the  discovery  of  these 
processes  may  be  supplemented  by  accounts  de- 
rived from  the  practices  of  primitive  tribes  in 
many  localities  today.  Such  processes  as  mining, 
crushing,  and  reducing  the  ore ;  building  the  fur- 
nace so  as  to  utilize  the  wind  for  a  draft,  or 
inventing  bellows  by  means  of  which  the  process 
may  be  kept  under  the  control  of  man ;  adapting 
the  shape  of  the  furnace  to  the  particular  situa- 
tion ;  introducing  fluxes  to  facilitate  the  smelt- 
ing ;  shaping  the  metal  by  means  of  hammering 
or  by  using  rude  molds  constructed  for  the  pur- 
pose ;  providing  a  means  for  the  escape  of  gases 
from  the  molds;  discovering  ways  of  using 
alloys ;  taking  suggestions  from  previous  experi- 
ence in  the  art  of  cooking  in  outdoor  ovens; 
making  such  modifications  as  are  demanded  by 
the  special  needs  of  the  time  and  place ;  and  de- 
termining the  significance  of  the  art  in  the  early 
stages  of  its  development — all  these  processes 
can  be  brought  within  the  easy  comprehension 
of  the  child,  if  approached  from  the  point  of 
view  of  his  own  activities. 

The  child's  interest  in  presents,  in  the  winnings 
in  such  games   as  marbles,  and  in  the  various 


IN  ELEMENTARY  EDUCA  TION          1 3 I 

forms  of  barter  which  are  so  characteristic  of 
child-life,  form  a  natural  approach  to  the  earliest 
forms  of  trade.  The  survival  of  trading  games 
shows  that  they  meet  a  permanent  want.  The 
child  of  seven  may  deal  with  such  questions  as 
how  trade  originated ;  why  people  in  the  earli- 
est stages  depended  entirely  upon  their  own 
efforts  in  satisfying  their  needs ;  how  gradually 
it  became  customary  for  clansmen  occupying 
special  areas  of  culture  to  exchange  presents 
with  people  of  other  areas  on  festive  occasions ; 
why  such  presents  were  usually  exchanged  by 
the  leaders  of  the  clans  ;  how  the  desire  to  trade 
was  fostered  by  this  practice  as  well  as  by  the 
necessities  of  pastoral  and  mining  life,  robbery, 
the  spoils  of  war,  tribute,  fines, ,  compensations 
and  winnings  in  gaming ;  how  trade  was  retarded 
by  hostile  relations,  and  promoted  by  peace ;  why 
market  places  were  established  upon  neutral  ter- 
ritories ;  why  wandering  traders  were  allowed  to 
pass  through  an  enemy's  country  unmolested  ; 
how  the  traders  carried  the  news  and  thus  in- 
creased the  intelligence  of  the  people  ;  how,  as 
trade  flourished,  there  arose  the  need  of  more 
exact  modes  of  measurement ;  and  why  perma- 
nent market  places  were  established  at  breaks  in 
transportation. 

The  development  of  the  subject  of  trade   in- 
cludes the  development  of  primitive  travel  and 


1 3  2  THE  PLA  CE  OF  IND  US  TRIES 

transportation  on  land  and  on  water.  The  for- 
mer includes  the  study  of  the  special  costume 
and  carrying  devices  of  man  as  the  human  beast 
of  burden  ;  the  origin  of  trails,  trading  routes, 
roads, and  bridges  ;  the  first  steps  in  engineering ; 
the  domestication  of  animals  and  their  use,  first 
as  pack  animals  and  later  for  traction  and  for 
riding;  the  origin  and  simple  steps  in  the  develop- 
ment of  the  harness  ;  the  evolution  of  the  cart, 
and  many  activities  subsidiary  to  these  processes. 

The  consideration  of  primitive  travel  and 
transportation  by  water  includes  an  account  of 
the  various  swimming  devices  and  aids  in  float- 
ing; the  substitution  of  the  method  of  displace- 
ment for  the  method  of  flotation  ;  the  develop- 
ment of  the  various  forms  of  rafts,  passenger 
and  freight  boats  used  in  the  periods  of  savagery 
and  barbarism,  as  well  as  the  methods  of  making 
and  propelling  the  same  ;  and  the  means  of  regu- 
lating and  sustaining  the  workers  in  the  larger 
undertakings  connected  with  this  life.  Many  of 
these  questions  form  a  natural  part  of  the  sub- 
jects outlined  above.  When  this  subject  is  reached 
it  will  be  well  to  gather  up  those  experiences  that 
are  related  to  it  and  use  them  as  the  basis  of  the 
new  work. 

When  considered  in  relation  to  the  periods 
between  which  it  forms  the  transition,  this  stage 
is  significant  with  reference  to  the  tool.  In  later 


IN  ELEMENT  A  R  Y  ED  UCA  TION          1 3  3 

infancy  the  dominating  emotional  attitudes  and 
the  formed  co-ordinations  unite  in  making  it  the 
period  of  the  hand;  in  childhood  the  finer  co- 
ordinations and  emotional  attitudes  make  equally 
strong  demands  for  the  tool.  The  child  of  seven 
is  in  an  intermediate  stage.  The  finer  co-ordina- 
tions are  beginning  to  be  formed  ;  the  child  is 
not  satisfied  with  his  former  activities,  nor  is  he 
quite  ready  for  the  new.  If  the  dramatic  plays 
of  the  preceding  years  have  been  utilized  to  their 
full  extent,  and  if  the  child  has  had  the  privilege 
of  engaging  in  simple  household  activities,  the 
transition  may  be  made  more  easily  than  if  he 
has  been  deprived  of  his  full  measure  of  these 
activities. 

In  meeting  the  needs  of  this  transitional  period 
it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  as  great  an  injury 
can  be  done  to  the  child  by  giving  him  tools  that 
represent  a  technique  far  beyond  his  capacity,  as 
has  frequently  been  done  to  lower  races  when 
put  in  possession  of  tools  that  represent  an  ad- 
vanced stage  of  culture.  The  harm  is  done  to 
the  savage  by  greatly  increasing  his  leisure  time 
without  any  corresponding  change  in  his  nature. 
He  is  relieved  from  a  wholesome  physical  strain, 
that  accompanies  the  use  of  the  simple  tool,  with- 
out undergoing  the  many  physical,  intellectual,  and 
moral  strains  that  make  the  complex  tool  and 
its  accompanying  stage  of  culture  a  possibility. 


1 3  4  THE  PL  A  CE  OF  IND  US  TRIES 

The  result  is,  almost  inevitably,  idleness  and 
vice. 

While  the  race  parallel  must  not  be  applied 
literally  to  the  case  of  the  child,  there  is  a  truth 
in  it  which  should  influence  the  selection  of  tools 
that  make  up  the  child's  equipment.  In  short, 
tools  have  a  deeper  significance  than  is  usually 
attributed  to  them.  There  is  more  than  an  acci- 
dental correspondence  between  the  character  of 
the  tool  and  the  stage  of  development  of  the 
individual  fitted  to  use  it.  In  order  to  make 
it  clear  that  the  attitudes  of  this  period  may 
be  utilized  in  making  the  transition  from  the 
epoch  of  the  hand  to  that  of  the  tool,  let  us  con- 
sider them  with  reference  to  the  conditions  which 
gave  rise  to  the  origin  and  development  of  tools. 

Emerson  in  writing  of  man  in  the  most  primi- 
tive stage  said,  "  His  body  was  a  chest  of  tools, 
but  he  had  not  the  knack  of  using  them." 
Writers  on  anthropological  subjects  frequently 
make  allusions  of  this  kind.1  Just  as  primitive 
man  learned  to  use  the  tools  in  his  body  in  the 
early  stages  of  his  development,  just  as  he  made 
new  physical  co-ordinations  that  made  possible 
more  complex  movements,  so  the  child  in  the 

*O.  T.  MASON,  "Primitive  Zootechny,"  American  Anthro- 
pologist, New  Series,  Vol.  I,  p.  5 ;  EDWARD  CLODD,  Story  of 
Primitive  Man,  pp.  14,  15;  Smithsonian  Report  U.  S.  National 

Museum,   1894,  p.   240;  Iconographic  Dictionary ',  Vol.    VI,  p. 

193- 


IN  ELEMENTAR  Y  ED  UCA  TION          1 3  5 

period  of  later  infancy  by  means  of  free  play 
brings  into  action  the  various  organs  of  his  body 
and  directs  them  to  a  multitude  of  purposes.  At 
the  time  of  making  the  transition  it  is  especially 
fitting  that  his  efforts  be  reinforced  by  kindred 
racial  experience. 

No  child  of  seven  needs  to  be  taught  the  uses 
of  his  arms,  hands,  feet,  teeth,  and  nails.  He 
has  used  them  all  numberless  times  and  for 
various  purposes.  He  knows  very  well  how  to 
strike  with  the  fist,  knee,  or  heel ;  he  knows  how 
to  carry  burdens  on  his  head,  shoulders,  back, 
knees,  breast,  and  arms  ;  he  can  use  his  bent 
finger  for  a  hook  ;  he  can  scoop  with  his  hands  ; 
he  can  rake  with  his  fingers  ;  he  can  dig,  scratch, 
and  scrape  with  his  finger-nails  ;  he  can  press 
and  rub  with  his  flat  hand  ;  he  can  drink  from 
the  hollow  of  his  hand  ;  he  can  tread  with  his 
feet ;  he  can  pierce,  cut,  grind,  and  grip  with 
his  teeth,  and  he  can  grip  with  the  closed  hand 
or  hands,  or  the  arm  held  closely  to  the  body. 

On  the  basis  of  this  universal  experience  and 
under  the  impulse  of  a  need,  the  child  can 
readily  find  in  his  environment  the  means  of 
improving  the  tools  in  his  body.  He  can  find 
suggestions  in  "  nature's  workshop."  He  can 
find  a  stone  which  is  harder  than  his  fist  and 
thus  gain  the  use  of  a  more  efficient  hammer  as 
well  as  save  his  fist  from  the  pain  attending  the 


1 36  THE  PLA CE  OF  INDUSTRIES 

hard  blow  ;  if  its  rough  edges  hurt  his  hand  he 
can  wrap  the  end  of  it  in  grass  or  a  bit  of  skin  ; 
he  can  search  till  he  finds  a  smooth  hammer- 
stone  ;  if  it  slips  and  if  its  rebound  jars  his  hand 
he  can  find  relief  by  using  a  stone  that  has  a  pit 
on  either  side  which  will  prevent  the  thumb  and 
finger  from  slipping  and  at  the  same  time  pre- 
vent the  jar.  The  child  will  be  interested  in 
comparing  his  own  uses  of  hammers  with  those 
of  primitive  people.  In  following  the  life  of  the 
hunting  clan  he  will  realize  that  every  savage 
needed  a  hammer  and  that  he  used  it  for  many 
purposes.  He  can  see  that  the  women  would 
need  hammers  to  break  dry  wood  for  the  fires, 
to  crush  the  bones  so  as  to  get  the  marrow,  to 
pound  the  dry  meat  into  meal  for  pemmican 
when  they  were  advanced  far  enough  to  practice 
drying  meat,  to  drive  down  pegs  for  setting  the 
tent,  and  for  beating  logs  so  as  to  loosen  the 
annual  layers  which  they  wished  to  use  in  mak- 
ing baskets.  He  can  see  that  the  men  would 
need  hammers  for  driving  wedges  into  the  logs 
which  they  wished  to  split,  for  breaking  stones 
in  the  quarry,  for  pecking  or  battering  stones  so 
as  to  shape  them  into  rude  implements,  and  for 
grinding  paints,  poisons,  and  other  substances. 
These  various  uses  will  be  appreciated  only  after 
studying  the  lives  of  primitive  people  for  some 
months  ;  but  by  dealing  with  each  situation  as  it 


IN  ELEMENTAR  Y  ED  UCA  TION          1 3  ^ 

arises,  so  as  to  induce  the  child  to  explore  his 
environment  and  to  experiment  with  materials  in 
the  light  of  his  own  experience  as  well  as  in  that 
of  his  knowledge  of  the  conditions  of  the  people 
under  consideration,  he  gradually  acquires  a 
measuring  unit  for  a  more  correct  valuation  of 
the  social  products  of  his  own  community.  At 
the  same  time  he  is  getting  a  proper  respect  for 
the  people,  who,  under  less  favorable  circum- 
stances than  our  own,  laid  the  foundation  upon 
which  our  civilization  rests. 

As  the  child  considers  the  fitness  of  the  tool 
for  the  particular  work  under  consideration  he 
will  see  that,  although  one  hammer  may  be  used 
for  a  variety  of  purposes,  there  is  need  of  ham- 
mers of  different  shapes  and  sizes  in  order  to  best 
accomplish  each  kind  of  work.  In  spite  of  the 
difference  in  shape  and  size,  he  will  find  that 
they  are  all  alike  in  requiring  a  tough,  compact, 
fine-grained  stone.  As  he  advances  in  the  work 
he  will  discover  that  some  kinds  of  hammering 
must  be  done  rapidly,  requiring  little  attention 
to  the  direction  of  the  blow,  while  in  other  cases 
the  blow  is  deliberate,  the  force  and  the  direc- 
tion of  the  blow  being  measured  with  the  great- 
est care.  He  cannot  advance  far  in  the  use  of 
the  hammer  without  facing  the  problem  of  haft- 
ing,  but  since  this  topic  is  treated  in  another  place 
it  may  be  omitted  here. 


138  THE  PLACE  OF  INDUSTRIES 

Without  going  into  further  details  it  may  be 
sufficient  to  note  that  the  child  can  proceed  from 
the  use  of  his  nails  and  teeth,  as  cutting  imple- 
ments, to  natural  objects  that  are  an  improvement 
upon  these.  In  view  of  the  fact  that  most  child- 
ren possess  knives  before  they  go  to  school,  and 
have  seen  a  variety  of  knives  used  for  a  variety 
of  purposes  throughout  their  short  lives,  it  will 
be  more  difficult  for  them  to  realize  a  situation 
in  which  they  must  find  something  besides  a  knife 
to  cut  with  than  almost  any  other  situation 
that  may  arise  in  connection  with  tools.  Those 
who  have  tried  the  experiment,  however,  find 
that  children  enjoy  situations  of  this  kind  ;  and 
when  they  get  the  conditions  of  the  problem 
clearly  in  mind  they  work  perseveringly  and  with 
much  originality  in  solving  it. 

In  the  presence  of  knives  and  other  implements 
made  of  metal,  it  would  scarcely  occur  to  a  child 
to  use  a  stone  to  cut  with  ;  and  deprived  of  these 
means,  the  use  of  stone  will  not  be  apt  to  be  his  first 
solution.  He  instinctively  uses  his  nails  and  teeth 
for  the  purpose,  and  if  he  has  the  opportunity  to 
see  the  teeth,  tusks,  and  horns  of  animals  he 
may  get  a  suggestion  from  them.  If  he  lives  by 
the  seaside  he  will  doubtless  think  of  using  a 
shell,  but  it  will  not  be  long  before  he  strikes 
upon  the  use  of  a  sharp  stone.  While  the  child 
would  not  be  satisfied  to  resign  the  use  of  his 


IN  ELEMENTARY  EDUCA  TION          1 39 

own  knife  for  any  length  of  time,  he  takes  the 
satisfaction  that  he  gets  in  play  from  experi- 
menting with  various  substances  in  order  to  find 
a  material  that  he  can  shape  so  as  to  make  a 
knife.  If  he  stops  short  of  the  use  he  may  fail 
to  discriminate  in  the  selection  of  material.  If 
not,  he  can  quickly  learn  the  lesson  that  the  sav- 
age learned  long  ago  and  thus  get  a  practical 
lesson  in  mineralogy. 

When  once  the  child  has  made  a  stone  knife 
without  a  handle,  it  will  be  an  interesting  study 
to  show  how  successive  improvement  may  be 
made  in  it  by  varying  the  method  by  which  the 
handle  is  attached.  If  hafted  at  the  point  with 
a  short  handle  it  is  a  hunting-knife,  but  if  at  the 
side,  it  becomes  a  woman's  scaling,  scraping,  or  cut- 
ting knife.  The  connection  of  the  woman's  knife 
with  the  kitchen  mincing-knife  on  the  one  hand 
and  with  the  saddler's  round-knife  on  the  other, 
will  serve  to  illustrate  to  the  children  that  al- 
though the  material  may  change,  the  form  and 
purpose  of  the  knife  remain  almost  the  same  as 
they  were  thousands  of  years  ago. 

The  evolution  of  the  man's  knife  is  even  more 
interesting,  and  serves  better  to  show  the  close 
dependence  of  the  implement  upon  the  general 
state  of  culture.  Before  man  had  any  weapons 
it  was  not  safe  for  him  to  meet  the  wild  beasts 
in  open  combat.  They  were  more  powerful  than 


140  THE  PLACE  OF  INDUSTRIES 

he.  When  he  saw  the  wild  beasts  he  tried  to 
escape  from  them.  This  was  the  age  of  fear. 
When  he  learned  to  make  his  first  rude  weapons 
he  found  that  he  could  pierce  and  cut  better  with 
the  stone  knife  than  with  his  teeth  and  nails; 
he  could  strike  harder  blows  with  a  club  or  a 
hammer  than  he  could  with  his  heels  or  fists. 
Thus  armed  he  got  courage  to  meet  the  wild 
beasts  in  open  combat.  But  it  was  not  safe  even 
then  to  come  into  close  quarters  with  some  of 
them  ;  so  he  lengthened  the  handle  of  his  knife 
and  thus  supplemented  his  arms  by  the  use  of 
the  spear.  This  was  the  age  of  combat.  Gradu- 
ally man  became  so  formidable  that  many  of  the 
wild  beasts  began  to  fear  him.  Now  it  was  not 
man  that  was  afraid  ;  he  pursued  the  animals 
which  fled  in  fear  from  his  presence.  This  was 
the  age  of  the  chase. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  the  interactions  be- 
tween the  form  of  the  weapon  and  the  relation  of 
the  people  to  the  animals.  As  the  animals  be- 
came more  and  more  afraid,  man  was  stimulated 
more  and  more  to  invent  weapons  that  could  fly 
faster  than  they  could  run.  The  heavy  spear 
gave  way  to  the  dart  and  the  javelin ;  the  throw- 
ing-stick  was  invented  in  order  to  increase  the 
force  and  distance  of  the  weapon  hurled.  Each 
invention  served  either  to  make  such  a  change 
in  the  gripping  device  as  to  supplement  the 


IN  ELEMENTAR  Y  ED  UCA  TION          1 4 I 

strength  of  the  fingers  and  arms,  or  to   improve 
the  character  of  the  working  part. 

Just  how  the  bow  and  arrow  was  invented  will 
probably  never  be  known.  The  elements  which 
it  combines  had  been  in  use  in  different  imple- 
ments for  ages.  The  arrow  is  but  a  diffentiation 
from  the  primitive  hunting-knife  or  spear.  The 
elastic  spring  had  long  been  in  use  in  traps. 
One  variety  of  throwing-stick  made  use  of  the 
bow,  but  in  quite  a  different  way.  It  is  not  the 
use  of  any  one  of  the  principles  involved  that  is 
so  remarkable,  but  the  combination  of  principles 
by  means  of  which  man  was  able  to  co-ordinate 
mind  and  body  in  a  most  effective  manner.  The 
man  who  hit  upon  this  combination  was  a  genius 
of  a  high  order.  Mr.  Wilson,  in  writing  of  the 
significance  of  the  bow  and  arrow,  says  :  "The 
bow  and  arrow  was  the  greatest  of  all  human 
inventions — greatest  in  that  it  marked  man's 
first  step  in  mechanics,  greatest  in  adaptation  of 
means  to  the  end,  and  as  an  invented  machine  it 
manifested  in  the  most  practical  and  marked 
manner  the  intellectual  and  reasoning  power  of 
man  and  his  superiority  over  the  brute  creation. 
It,  more  than  any  other  weapon,  demonstrated 
the  triumph  of  man  over  the  brute,  recognizing  the 
limitations  of  human  physical  capacity  in  contests 
with  his  enemies  and  the  capture  of  his  game."1 

1  THOMAS    WILSON,  "The    Swastika,"    Smithsonian    Report 
of  the  United  States  National  Museum,  1894,  p.  980. 


142  THE  PLACE  OF  INDUSTRIES 

Little  does  the  child  realize  when  he  plays 
with  his  bow  and  arrow  what  such  a  weapon  sig- 
nified to  the  hunters  of  long  ago.  While  it  is 
not  at  all  necessary  for  the  child  to  formulate 
the  facts,  it  is  highly  educative  for  him  to  get 
such  interactions  between  his  own  experience  with 
digging-sticks,  spears,  knives,  javelins,  throwing- 
sticks,  elastic-springs,  and  bows  and  arrows  on 
the  one  hand,  and  the  conditions  of  life  among 
primitive  people  who  made  use  of  these  in  the 
successive  stages  of  their  development  on  the 
other,  as  will  enable  him  to  appreciate  the  social 
need  out  of  which  each  grew.  He  can  readily 
grasp  the  idea  that  each  advance,  which  was  sig- 
nificant to  the  people  of  the  time,  was  made  either 
by  making  slight  changes  in  the  weapon  already 
in  use,  or  by  combining  in  one  form  ideas  for- 
merly used  in  different  weapons  or  devices. 

Most  children  are  already  familiar  with  the 
bow  and  arrow,  and  before  this  subject  is  taken 
up  in  class  they  will  have  become  familiar  with 
spears,  darts,  and  throwing-sticks.  It  will  be 
interesting  to  examine  a  bow  and  arrow  with  ref- 
erence to  the  simple  implements  and  weapons 
from  which  it  was  derived.  For  this  purpose  it 
is  best  to  use  a  bow  and  arrow  of  the  simplest 
type.  The  children  can  readily  trace  the  evolu- 
tion of  the  arrow  from  the  first  crude  hunting- 
knife  and  spear.  The  new  idea  seems  to  be  the 


IN  ELEMENTARY  EDUCA  TION          143 

bow,  but  even  this  is  not  new.  The  elastic-spring 
in  the  bow  had  been  used  in  traps  and  in  throw- 
ing-sticks.  Children  are  very  original  in  solving 
such  problems,  and  their  contributions  to  the 
process  of  tracing  the  development  of  primitive 
implements  and  weapons  are  not  to  be  despised.1 
The  making  of  the  bow  and  arrow  presents  the 
opportunity  for  acquiring  valuable  experience. 
First  of  all  there  is  the  proper  selection  of  mate- 
rial. The  child  soon  learns  that  any  kind  of  a  stick 
is  not  suited  for  a  bow.  Experience  teaches  him 
to  select  a  branch  that  is  both  tough  and  elastic. 
If  he  does  not  know  how  long  a  piece  to  cut  for 
the  bow,  after  he  has  estimated  the  length,  he 
may  be  told  how  the  Indian  hunters  made  the 
bow  eight  times  the  span  from  the  thumb  to  the 
little  ringer  of  the  hunter  using  it,  and  the  arrow 
as  long  as  the  distance  from  the  armpit  to  the 
end  of  the  thumb-nail  measured  on  the  inside  of 
the  extended  arm.  This  opens  up  the  whole 
question  of  measurement  and  the  selection  of 
natural  units. 

1  FRANK  HAMILTON  GUSHING,  "  The  Arrow,"  The  American  An- 
thropologist, Vol.  VIII,  p.  31 1.  "  When  I  was  a  boy  less  than  ten 
years  of  age,  my  father's  hired  man,  while  plowing  one  day, 
picked  up  and  threw  to  me  across  the  furrows  a  little  blue  flint 
arrow-point,  saying  :  '  The  Indians  made  that ;  it  is  one  of  their 
arrow-heads.'  I  took  it  up  fearfully,  wonderingly,  in  my  hands. 
It  was  small,  cold,  shining,  and  sharp  —  perfect  in  shape.  Noth- 
ing had  ever  aroused  my  interest  so  much.  That  little  arrow- 
point  decided  the  purpose  and  calling  of  my  whole  life." 


144  THE  PLACE  OF  INDUSTRIES 

The  child  may  be  satisfied  for  a  time  with  the 
unwrought  bow ;  but  as  he  discovers  in  his  play 
that  he  can  send  the  arrow  to  the  mark  better 
with  some  bows  than  with  others,  he  will  dis- 
cover the  need  of  straightening  the  stick  and 
removing  the  inequalities  of  surface.  This  need 
makes  it  all  the  more  imperative  that  a  good 
selection  be  made  in  the  first  place,  and  that  it 
be  made  some  time  before  the  bow  is  needed,  so 
as  to  afford  sufficient  time  for  the  wood  to  be- 
come seasoned.  How  the  savage  straightened 
the  stick  with  his  fingers  as  he  held  it  near  the 
fire;  how  he  steamed  it  in  order  to  get  it  ready  to 
bend  and  shape  with  his  stone  knife;  how  he 
scraped  the  rough  edges ;  how  he  rubbed  the 
stick  with  reindeer  fat  to  make  it  more  elastic ; 
how  he  put  it  away  to  dry;  how  later  he  held  it 
near  the  fire  and  rubbed  it  with  bear's  oil  to  make 
it  tough  ;  how  when  the  stick  was  ready  he  took 
the  sinew  that  he  had  taken  from  the  lower  part  of 
the  leg  of  a  reindeer  and  shredded  it  with  his  fin- 
gers until  it  was  as  fine  as  silk;  how  he  spun  it  with 
the  palm  of  his  hand  on  his  thigh;  how  he  doubled 
and  twisted  the  threads  until  he  had  cord  large 
enough  for  a  bow-string;  how  he  strung  his  bow, 
why  he  left  it  unstrung  when  not  in  use ;  why  he 
was  careful  to  keep  it  dry;  how  he  made  a  quiver 
and  bow  case ;  how  and  why  he  rubbed  his  bow 
with  oil — all  these  are  subjects  of  intense  inter- 


IN  ELEMENTARY  ED UCA  TION          1 4 5 

est  and  value  to  the  child.  They  are  interesting 
because  they  appeal  to  his  instincts ;  they  are 
valuable  because  they  hold  in  solution  ideas 
which  underlie  the  science  and  industry  of  the 
present.  They  serve  to  make  an  easy  transition 
between  play  and  the  more  serious  activities  of 
life. 

How  the  shaft  was  straightened  by  drawing  it 
through  a  groove  in  a  soft  stone,  with  or  without 
the  use  of  water  and  fire ;  why  the  feather  was 
split,  and  the  unnecessary  parts  removed ;  how  it 
was  carefully  trimmed  and  laid  upon  the  shaft 
to  which  it  was  attached  by  means  of  glue  and 
sinew ;  what  the  function  of  the  feather  was  sup- 
posed to  be  and  what  it  really  was ;  how  the 
hunter  made  use  of  parts  of  his  body  for  the 
bearings  of  the  shaft  when  binding  the  arrow- 
head to  it  with  sinew ;  these,  too,  are  subjects  of 
interest  and  value. 

The  child  can  readily  see  that  in  hunting  with 
the  simplest  kind  of  an  arrow  it  would  be  pos- 
sible for  the  wounded  animal  to  free  itself  from 
the  arrow  and  escape.  This  condition  makes  it 
necessary  to  think  of  some  way  of  impeding  the 
progress  of  the  animal  or  of  preventing  the 
withdrawal  of  the  arrow.  The  perception  of  this 
need  is  sufficient  to  give  significance  to  the  barbs 
upon  the  arrow-heads  and  to  the  detachable  fore- 
shaft. 


146  THE  PLACE  OF  INDUSTRIES 

Although  the  consideration  of  the  methods  of 
making  bows  and  arrows  in  places  where  nature 
has  withheld  or  concealed  her  gifts  may  well  be 
postponed  to  a  later  year,  it  is  mentioned  here  in 
order  to  show  how  fruitful  in  stimulating  prob- 
lems the  subject  of  the  bow  and  arrow  is.  In  dry 
countries  where  it  is  difficult  to  find  much  hard 
wood  the  hunters  are  obliged  to  invent  devices 
for  economizing  the  material.  In  this  way  the 
foreshaft  is  explained.  It  is  made  of  hard  wood 
because  it  is  difficult  to  attach  the  arrow-head  to 
a  pithy  twig.  The  heavy  foreshaft  makes  a  good 
socket  for  the  arrow-head  while  the  lighter  wood 
serves  very  well  for  the  remaining  parts  of  the 
shaft. 

The  making  of  the  bow  is  not  so  simple.  Yet 
the  manipulation  of  the  materials  at  hand  so  as  to 
secure  a  bow  that  is  sufficiently  rigid  and  flexible 
has  been  effected  in  several  ways,  doubtless  after 
unnumbered  efforts.  In  some  cases  two  or  three 
horns  are  united,  "the  middle  piece  giving  the 
columnar  resistance,  the  wings  putting  the  arrow 
to  flight."1  In  other  cases  the  effect  is  secured 
by  using  the  white  or  sap  wood  of  the  cedar, 
which  is  not  so  brittle  as  the  dry  wood.  It  is 
removed  from  the  tree  so  that  the  outside  of  the 
tree  will  also  be  the  outside  of  the  bow.  After 

i MASON,  "The  Influence  of  Environment  upon  Human  In- 
dustries and  Arts,"  Smithsonian  Report,  1895,  p.  662. 


IN  ELEMENTARY  EDUCA  TION          147 

scraping,  polishing,  bending  evenly,  and  carv- 
ing the  ends  so  as  to  point  back  slightly,  finely 
shredded  deer's  sinew  is  glued  upon  the  back  until 
it  is  a  semi-cylindrical  shape.  By  anointing  it 
each  day  while  it  is  drying  with  deer's  marrow 
the  brittleness  is  taken  away. 

The  problem  of  the  Eskimo  hunter  is  even 
more  difficult.  Mr.  Mason  has  described  how 
the  difficulty  is  met  in  this  case.  "  It  is  true  that 
he  has  only  brittle  driftwood,  that  glue  will  not 
hold  in  his  cold,  damp  clime,  and  that  materials 
for  arrows  are  scarce.  The  result  of  this  is  the 
sinew-backed  bow  and  the  harpoon-arrow,  to- 
gether the  most  complicated  and  ingenious  de- 
vice ever  contrived  by  savage  mind.  The  bow 
wood  had  one  virtue,  that  of  rigidity.  By  an 
ingenious  wrapping  of  hundreds  of  feet  of  fine 
sinew  thread  or  braid  from  end  to  end  along  the 
back  with  half  hitches  on  the  limbs,  at  every 
danger  point  the  virtue  of  elasticity  is  added  and 
you  have  one  of  the  most  quickly  responsive 
implements  in  the  world.  The  arrow  is  quite  as 
cleverly  conceived,  for  it  pierces  its  victim,  acts 
as  a  drag  or  log  to  impede  its  progress,  and  by 
its  feather  as  a  signal  to  the  hunter  in  following 
his  victim."1 

When  we  consider  the  difficulties  that  primi- 
tive people  had  in  making  the  bow  and  arrow, 

*Ibid,  p.  663. 


148  THE  PLACE  OF  INDUSTRIES 

and  when  we  take  into  account  that  in  the  use  of 
it,  it  was  necessary  to  consider  distance,  wind, 
varying  elasticity  of  the  bow,  varying  weight  of 
the  arrow,  shape  of  the  weapon,  and  the  pene- 
trability of  the  game,  and  how  each  of  these 
variables  was  rendered  constant  by  the  hunter 
skulking,  getting  to  the  windward,  using  wood 
of  the  greatest  strength  for  bows,  and  manipulat- 
ing it  to  suit  his  needs,  we  cannot  fail  to  see 
that  its  use  was  educative  in  the  real  sense  of  the 
word.  The  hunter  who  was  armed  with  a  bow 
and  arrow  could  not  act  upon  the  basis  of  instinct 
alone  — at  every  point  it  was  necessary  for  intelli- 
gence to  be  used. 

It  is  equally  possible  today  for  the  bow  and 
arrow  to  exercise  an  educative  influence  for  a  brief 
period  in  the  child's  development.  It  can  serve 
to  refine  his  instinctive  activities,  to  greatly  in- 
crease his  power  to  adapt  himself  to  new  con- 
ditions, and  it  can  introduce  him  to  history  and 
science  by  means  of  such  practical  experience 
that  he  may,  even  in  his  early  years,  get  an 
insight  into  the  processes  of  man  in  relation  to 
his  environment  that  few  attain  until  they  have 
reached  mature  years. 

The  child's  interest  in  boats  appears  early  and 
continues  throughout  the  elementary-school  pe- 
riod. The  simpler  steps  in  the  evolution  of  boats, 
which  were  worked  out  during  the  periods  of 


IN  ELEMENTAR  Y  ED  UCA  TION          1 49 

savagery  and  barbarism,  may  profitably  be  con- 
sidered by  the  child  of  seven,  the  more  complex 
problems  of  early  civilization  being  postponed 
until  a  later  period. 

The  child  who  lives  near  the  water  will  have 
no  difficulty  in  understanding  why  people  learned 
to  swim,  and  how  they  depended  upon  their  own 
bodies  in  navigating  before  they  learned  to  make 
and  use  boats.  The  play  instincts  may  be  util- 
ized with  reference  to  the  serious  problems  of 
life  if  the  child  be  encouraged  to  work  out  the 
problems  that  confront  one  when  learning  to 
swim;  to  discover  how  the  functions  of  the  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  body  in  swimming  suggest 
devices  to  facilitate  the  movement  of  the  body 
and  to  give  it  more  freedom;  and  to  invent  such 
devices  as  light  wood,  gourds,  floating  logs, 
inflated  skins,  and  vessels  of  pottery  as  a  means 
of  support  for  the  body  or  for  a  burden,  which 
may  be  towed  along  by  means  of  a  cord  attached 
to  the  person. 

The  consideration  of  these  humble  origins  is 
of  value  partly  because  it  affords  an  opportunity 
for  the  child  to  experiment  along  a  line  that  will 
yield  cumulative  results,  thus  meeting  the  grow- 
ing demand  for  a  serial  arrangement;  and  partly 
because  it  enables  the  child  to  grasp  concepts 
represented  by  the  technique  in  a  vital  way, 
thus  enabling  him  to  interpret  more  complex 


1 5  0  THE  PLA  CE  OF  IND  US  TRIES 

forms  that  inevitably  come  into  his  environment 
later. 

The  evolution  of  the  wooden  boat  is  a  subject 
that  presents  many  opportunities  for  utilizing  ex- 
periences gained  in  hours  of  play.  It  includes 
such  problems  as  the  following :  How  people 
learned  to  reduce  the  friction  of  the  swimming  log 
by  pointing  the  ends,  and,  after  perceiving  the 
advantage  of  logs  hollowed  through  their  former 
use  as  fireplaces,  they  began  to  manufacture  rude 
dugouts;  how  these  were  paddled  with  the  hands 
and  feet  until  the  happy  thought  occurred  of  ex- 
tending these  limbs  by  artificial  means;  how  these 
primitive  paddles,  resembling  large  ladles  or  pos- 
sibly shovels,  were  used  to  dig  or  to  sweep  up 
the  water;  what  changes  were  gradually  made  in 
their  form  and  in  the  manner  of  their  use ;  how 
in  many  cases  the  hollow  log  which  was  so  nar- 
row as  to  cramp  the  body  was  widened  by  the 
use  of  hot  stones,  water,  and  braces ;  how  both 
height  and  width  were  increased  by  lashing 
planks  to  either  side,  thus  increasing  the  stability 
of  the  boat  at  the  same  time;  how  as  time  went 
on  the  center  log  became  smaller  and  smaller 
till  it  dwindled  to  a  keel  which  still  further 
increased  the  stability  of  the  boat;  how  the  side 
planks  were  increased  until  a  framework  with  ver- 
tical ribs  was  added;  and  how  gradually  wooden 
pins  were  substituted  for  stitches,  and  later  nails 
replaced  the  wooden  pins. 


IN  ELEMENTARY  ED UCA  TION          1 5 1 

The  evolution  of  the  raft  is  as  full  of  interest. 
The  floating  logs  brought  down  by  the  river  in 
a  time  of  flood  offered  a  strong  stimulus  to  primi- 
tive people  to  risk  an  adventure.  The  exhilara- 
tion of  such  a  ride  would  stimulate  them  to  efforts 
to  make  it  a  more  permanent  feature  of  their  life. 
By  lashing  the  logs  together  with  strong  cords 
the  risk  of  a  cold  plunge  was  greatly  lessened. 
Doubtless,  at  first,  its  course  was  determined  en- 
tirely by  means  of  the  currents  of  water,  but  it  does 
not  serve  man's  purposes  to  leave  the  control  of  his 
affairs  to  outside  forces.  He  discovers  a  way  of 
regulating  the  movement  of  the  raft  by  the  use  of 
long  poles.  The  use  to  which  the  raft  could  be 
applied  in  travel  and  transportation  operated  so 
as  to  bring  about  further  improvements.  The 
clumsy  raft  gave  place  to  a  lighter  one,  and  this 
to  the  catamaran  —  a  raft  of  three  logs  or  planks 
lashed  together  in  five  places,  the  central  log 
being  longer  than  the  others  in  order  to  reduce 
the  friction.  As  there  was  nothing  to  prevent 
the  waves  from  washing  over  this  vessel  a  plat- 
form was  erected  in  order  to  keep  the  cargo  dry. 

The  catamaran  developed  into  the  double 
canoe  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  outrigger  on  the 
other.  The  double  canoe  at  first  consisted  of 
two  logs  laid  parallel  to  each  other  some  distance 
apart,  united  by  cross-poles  upon  which  a  plat- 
form was  reared.  Later  the  logs  were  replaced 


THE  PLA  CE  OF  2ND  US  TRIES 


by  boats,  the  platform  still  being  retained.  The 
double  canoe  was  an  improvement  upon  the 
catamaran  because  it  offered  less  resistance  to 
the  water. 

The  outrigger,  which  is  a  small  log  attached 
by  cross-poles  to  the  side  of  a  boat,  served  to 
retain  some  of  the  advantages  of  the  raft,  and  by 
lightening  it,  to  secure  at  the  same  time  some  of 
the  advantages  of  the  boat.  Sometimes  outrig- 
gers were  attached  to  both  sides  of  the  boat. 

The  evolution  of  boats  of  bark,  skin,  and 
reeds,  is  equally  interesting.  How  the  best  ma- 
terials at  hand  in  the  different  areas  of  culture 
were  utilized  in  the  manufacture  of  water  craft  ; 
how  these  forms  were  gradually  improved  in 
order  to  secure  safety  and  to  economize  strength  ; 
how  special  adaptations  were  made  in  order  to 
meet  special  needs  ;  why  the  paddle  gave  way  to 
the  oar  and  rudder,  and  these  to  paddle  wheels 
and  sails  ;  how  man  devised  the  shifting  sail  ; 
how  he  contrived  means  of  storing  provisions  for 
long  voyages  ;  why  voyages  in  the  deep  seas 
made  it  necessary  for  people  to  guide  their 
course  by  the  stars  ;  how  sailing  charts  were 
invented  ;  how  labor  became  organized  by  the 
needs  of  these  undertakings  —  these  are  some  of 
the  problems  with  which  the  child  may  well  deal 
in  the  study  of  the  life  of  people  who  live  by  the 
sea. 


IN  ELEMENTAR  Y  ED  UCA  TION          1 5  3 

Perhaps  enough  illustrations  have  already  been 
given  to  show  how  fruitful  the  subject  of  primi- 
tive industries  is  in  ideas  which  connect  with  the 
subjects  of  the  school,  and  how  many  opportuni- 
ties it  presents  of  connecting  these  interests  with 
the  play  activities  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  seri- 
ous activities  of  society  on  the  other.  With  one 
more  illustration  for  the  purpose  of  showing 
more  clearly  how  the  mechanical  principles, 
made  use  of  in  a  practical  way  at  this  time,  may 
be  of  service  later  in  the  interpretation  of  indus- 
try in  the  stage  of  national  economy,  this  phase 
of  the  subject  must  be  concluded. 

We  have  already  seen  how  man  found  his  first 
tools  in  his  own  body.  He  'found  the  motive 
power  with  which  to  work  them  there  too.  Just 
as  man's  tools  supplemented  the  organs  of  his 
body,  so  the  different  forces,  which  after  long 
ages  he  discovered  how  to  utilize,  supplemented 
his  own  muscular  energy,  and  were  applied  in 
ways  marked  out  by  the  physical  co-ordinations 
already  established.  The  push,  the  pull,  and  the 
twist  of  human  movements  find  their  counterpart 
in  the  forces  which  we  now  find  in  machines. 

The  mechanical  principles  which  are  involved 
in  the  most  complex  machinery  are  nearly  all 
met  with  in  a  practical  way  in  the  study  of  primi- 
tive industries.  The  weight  was  made  use  of  in 
the  digging  stick,  the  spindle,  the  hammer,  and 


I  5  4  THE  PLA  CE  OF  IND  USTRIES 

the  trap;  the  elastic  spring  was  made  use  of  in 
traps,  in  throwing-sticks,  and  in  the  bow  and 
arrow ;  the  inclined  plane  was  made  use  of  in 
routes  of  travel,  especially  if  there  were  burdens 
to  be  carried  or  vehicles  to  be  drawn;  the  wedge 
was  used  in  felling  trees,  in  making  planks,  in 
tightening  the  lashing  of  haftings,  and  in  num- 
berless other  activities ;  the  lever  was  used  in 
flaking  stones,  in  carrying  with  several  varieties 
of  carrying-frames,  and  in  rowing  boats  ;  the 
sled  was  made  use  of  on  the  grass,  on  snow, 
and  on  specially  prepared  tracks  ;  the  roller  was 
used  in  landing  boats,  and  it  preceded  the  use  of 
the  wheel  in  the  evolution  of  carts  ;  the  pulley  was 
used  in  hauling  up  large  animals  from  the  sea, 
and  in  moving  heavy  weights  either  horizontally 
or  vertically ;  the  wheel  and  axle,  which  we  find 
in  primitive  carts,  may  have  originated  in  the 
spindle-whorl,  or  in  the  fly-wheel  used  in  drills 
for  making  fire,  or  drilling  holes  through  stones  ; 
twisting,  shrinking,  and  clampi-ng  devices  were 
made  use  of  in  the  manufacture  of  implements ; 
the  screw  is  found  in  its  most  primitive  form  in 
the  device  to  stop  the  flow  of  blood  from  a  wound 
by  means  of  a  wooden  plug  on  which  has  been 
cut  a  sort  of  a  "thread,"  and  it  was  also  used  in 
tightening  the  back  of  bows  and  in  several  forms 
of  traps. 

The  child  of  seven   is  too  immature  to  deal 


IN  ELEMENTAR  Y  ED  UCA  TION          1 5  5 

with  these  mechanical  devices  as  principles,  and 
it  is  not  at  all  necessary  that  he  be  taught  their 
names.  What  is  of  importance,  is  that  he  be 
given  the  opportunity  to  originate  these  various 
ways  of  interchanging  the  time,  direction,  and 
momentum  of  the  forces  of  his  own  body  in  the 
typical  ways  marked  out  by  the  savage  —  ways 
which  Mr.  Mason  says  that  modern  science  and 
industry  have  been  able  to  improve  only  by  sub- 
stituting new  materials  and  introducing  improved 
methods  of  manipulation.1 

PERIOD    OF    CHILDHOOD. 

In  the  treatment  of  this  period  we  shall  attempt 
at  this  time  nothing  further  than  a  general  state- 
ment of  the  attitudes  of  the  period  as  a  whole 
and  the  general  character  of  the  work  along 
industrial  lines,  illustrating  only  where  the  situa- 
tion seems  to  require  it. 

The  most  characteristic  features  of  the  first 
years  of  childhood  are  a  retarded  physical  growth 
and  a  development  of  the  co-ordinations  that 
control  the  movements  of  the  finer  muscles. 
This  is  pre-eminently  a  motor  period.  The  fact 
that  new  co-ordinations  are  ready  for  exercise 
and  that  less  energy  is  demanded  for  external 
growth  than  in  periods  immediately  preceding 

1  O.  T.  MASON,  "  Primitive  Travel  and  Transportation," 
Smithsonian  Report  of  the  United  States  National  Museum,  1894, 
p.  241. 


1 5  6  THE  PL  A  CE  OF  IND  US  TRIES 

or  following,  suggests  a  reason  for  the  restless- 
ness that  is  so  characteristic  of  this  age.  The 
child  is  embarrassed  by  a  store  of  energy  over 
which  he  has  not  yet  established  control.  He 
can  maintain  a  quiet  position  only  with  the  great- 
est difficulty.  The  objective  world  is  now  well 
differentiated  from  the  subjective.  The  separa- 
tion between  means  and  ends,  which  began  in 
the  earlier  stage,  is  now  more  pronounced.  He  is 
able  to  grasp  more  complicated  relations  in  the 
means  than  before.  This  manifests  itself  in  the 
character  of  his  games,  which  are  no  longer 
played  for  the  interest  in  winning,  although  that 
interest  is  still  strong.  The  games  played  at  this 
time  seem  often  to  be  played  for  the  sake  of 
acquiring  skill.1  The  new  co-ordinations  are 
demanding  an  opportunity  to  function  and  offer 
a  sufficient  reward  in  the  way  of  pleasure. 

This  is  the  golden  opportunity  for  teaching 
subjects  that  require  considerable  control  of 
technique.  The  fact  that  the  child's  interest  in 
technique  is  so  great  that  at  times  he  appears  to 
take  satisfaction  in  it  when  isolated  from  its 
vital  relations,  has  led  some  to  characterize  this 
period  as  the  age  of  drill.  A  more  intimate 
acquaintance  with  real  children  is  the  best  anti- 
dote for  such  a  conception,  which  is  largely 

XJOHN  DEWEY,  Mental  Development,  p.  13  (an  unpublished 
article), 


IN  ELEMENTARY  ED UCA  TION          1 5 7 

responsible  for  the  attitude  that  many  people 
take  toward  grade  teachers. 

The  differentiation  between  work  and  play, 
which  began  in  the  earlier  period,  is  now  more 
marked.  The  restlessness  of  the  period  is  not 
occasioned  by  a  lack  of  a  serious  interest  in  life. 
It  is  rather  because  the  child  has  so  many  serious 
interests  not  recognized  by  older  people.  The 
lack  of  helpful  recognition  discourages  many  a 
child  and  demoralizes  others. 

Because  work  and  play  stand  out  as  separate 
interests,  and  because  the  child  at  this  time  is  so 
serious,  so  objective,  and  so  keen  in  interpreting 
a  situation,  the  attempt  to  present  work  under 
the  guise  of  play  is  readily  understood  by  the 
child  and  valued  accordingly.  The  separation 
between  work  and  play  at  this  period  is  not 
such  as  to  prevent  mutual  interaction.  Each  can 
profit  by  its  relation  to  the  other.  Just  as 
in  the  earlier  period  all  serious  activities  were 
conceived  in  the  spirit  of  play,  now  play  becomes 
freighted  with  the  serious  interests  of  life.  To 
force  this  movement  unduly  is  to  arrest  devel- 
opment, but  to  utilize  it  in  the  light  of  the  child's 
changing  interests  is  to  fostef  the  habit  of  con- 
ceiving work  not  as  drudgery,  but  as  a  free  and 
rich  realization  of  the  whole  nature. 

The  socializing  and  unifying  function  that 
belongs  to  play  in  the  school-room  during  later 


1 5  8  THE  PL  A  CE  OF  IND  USTRIES 

infancy  is  now  fulfilled  by  art,  which  is  begin- 
ning to  be  differentiated  from  work  and  play. 
The  degree  to  which  art  is  able  to  exercise  this 
influence  is  in  proportion  to  the  degree  that  the 
native  instincts  have  become  transformed  into  a 
great  variety  of  habits  that  function  with  refer- 
ence to  social  life.  If  this  change  has  been  made 
during  the  earlier  periods,  art  functions  normally 
at  this  time.  If,  however,  the  attitudes  have 
changed  without  at  the  same  time  becoming 
socialized,  the  serious  activities  are  apt  to  be  con- 
ceived as  drudgery  and  emotional  satisfaction 
sought  in  some  anti-social  form.  The  problem 
here  is  to  restore  the  missing  factor  whose  absence 
has  caused  such  an  isolation  of  interests. 

Fortunately  the  character  of  the  child  is  not  yet 
determined.  He  is  still  in  the  process  of  "  be- 
coming." He  is  still  responsive  to  suggestions  — 
especially  along  the  line  of  the  native  reactions 
of  the  period. 

The  spontaneous  activities,  the  traditional 
games  which  have  had  the  vitality  to  survive,  and 
even  the  activities  of  children  which  are  interpre- 
ted as  anti-social,1  as  well  as  many  that  really  are 
such,  unite  in  showing  that  during  the  period  of 
childhood  there  is  a  vital  interest  in  such  prob- 

1  The  case  of  a  boy  of  nine,  who  stayed  away  from  the  formal 
work  of  the  school  two  days  without  the  knowledge  of  his  par- 
ents in  order  to  learn  how  to  develop  photographic  plates,  illus- 
trates how  often  children  may  be  misunderstood. 


IN  ELEMENTARY  EDUCA  TION          1 59 

lems  as  how  man  secured  dominion  over  the 
natural  forces,  substituting  for  the  motive  power 
of  his  own  muscles  that  of  the  beast,  the  water, 
the  wind,  fire,  steam,  and  electricity;  and  how, 
in  applying  these  forces  successively  to  the  work 
of  society,  he  invented  tools,  discovered  mechani- 
cal principles,  worked  out  metrical  apparatus, 
exploited  his  environment  in  search  of  natural 
forces,  and  invented  and  controlled  machines 
for  the  more  advantageous  application  of  these 
forces. 

Where  such  work  has  been  offered  it  has  be- 
come evident  that  the  opportunity  to  work  out 
such  problems  by  means  of  construction,  illustra- 
tion, and  experiment  is  the  most  natural  way  yet 
discovered  of  securing  and  maintaining  a  health- 
ful attitude  toward  the  school.  I  have  in  mind 
the  case  of  a  boy  in  the  fifth  grade,  who,  after  a 
change  in  the  work  which  made  room  for  the 
use  of  his  own  out-of-door  experience,  acquired 
such  self-respect  as  to  enable  him  to  grapple 
with  the  formal  work  which  previously  had  had 
no  interest  for  him.  The  introduction  of  work 
of  a  more  practical  nature  was  what  he  needed 
in  order  to  establish  his  relations  with  the  work 
of  the  school.  Another  case  of  an  eighth  grade 
boy  points  in  the  same  direction.  He  was  so 
anti-social  in  his  tendencies  that  he  was  about  to 
be  expelled  from  school.  About  this  time  his 


160  THE  PLACE  OF  INDUSTRIES 

class,  whose  work  had  been  of  a  more  formal 
nature,  began  the  study  of  the  currents  of  the 
air  by  means  of  constructing  fireplaces  out  of 
stone  and  mortar  or  any  other  material  they 
might  choose  to  provide.  As  long  as  work  of 
this  nature  continued  he  was  the  earliest  one  at 
school  in  the  morning  and  the  latest  at  night. 
During  this  time  he  not  only  worked  at  his  fire- 
place, experimenting  with  it  so  as  to  regulate  the 
draft,  but  he  searched  through  the  available 
reference  books  for  further  light  upon  the  sub- 
ject. As  long  as  he  had  a  problem  that  he 
could  work  out  in  a  practical  way  he  conducted 
himself  in  such  a  manner  as  to  be  agreeable  to 
all  with  whom  he  had  relations.  In  the  same 
class  there  was  a  boy  of  an  entirely  different 
type,  in  short,  he  was  the  "model  boy"  of  the 
school.  While  he  did  not  stand  in  so  great  need 
of  work  of  this  character  he  was  enthusiastic  in 
working  out  his  problems,  and  attained  very  satis- 
factory results. 

There  are  different  degrees  in  which  children 
of  the  same  age  are  socialized.  These  differ- 
ences are  often  matters  that  the  school  can  do 
little  toward  controlling.  Work  which  calls  out 
the  emotional  reactions  normal  at  the  time,  which 
presents  the  opportunity  of  getting  a  clearly  de- 
fined problem,  which  represents  a  technique 
within  the  possibility  of  the  child's  power  to 


IN  ELEMENTARY  EDUCA  TION          l6l 

master,  and  which  is  related  to  the  achievements 
of  the  larger  world  in  the  consciousness  of  the 
child,  is  educative  to  all  children  of  this  period 
of  development. 

It  would  seem,  then,  that  art,  which  seemed  to 
be  the  missing  factor  in  the  case  of  the  anti- 
social child,  may  be  restored  by  means  of  such 
appeals  as  are  suggested  above.  Only  gradually, 
however,  does  art  become  sufficiently  strong  to 
represent  an  independent  activity.  Real  art  is 
best  promoted  throughout  childhood  by  securing 
and  maintaining  conditions  that  make  it  a  quality 
of  the  whole  life,  rather  than  an  independent 
activity.  Since  the  activity  of  the  child  must 
be  rooted  in  experience,  the  constructive  activity 
must  be  vitally  related  to  the  content  studies  of 
the  time.  By  the  necessities  of  the  case  con- 
struction must  lay  tribute  to  both  art  and  sci- 
ence. Under  such  circumstances  it  is  frequently 
necessary  to  give  considerable  attention  to  the 
technical  aspects  of  art,  which,  isolated  from  vital 
interests,  would  be  a  matter  of  indifference  if  not 
of  dislike.  When,  however,  the  isolation  is  for 
the  sake  of  acquiring  the  skill  that  is  needed  in 
order  to  continue  a  larger  process  that  appeals  to 
the  child,  he  is  persistent  in  his  efforts  until  the 
end  is  accomplished. 

Most  of  the  industrial  processes  of  the  child 
correspond  to  the  stage  of  house  industries. 


1 62  THE  PLACE  OF  INDUSTRIES 

Although  these  date  historically  from  the  earliest 
human  activities  to  the  tenth  century  they  still 
linger  in  communities  where  development  is  re- 
tarded, and  they  occur  in  some  form  in  all  com- 
munities. They  fall  naturally  into  two  classes,  of 
which  the  first  represents  each  individual  of  the 
group  as  occupied  in  doing  a  variety  of  work, 
while  the  second  represents  several  individuals 
engaged  in  one  undertaking.  The  latter  may  be 
work  where  co-operation  is  used  merely  to  facili- 
tate the  work,  or  it  may  be  work  which  would  be 
impossible  except  by  means  of  combined  labor. 

When  each  individual  supplies  his  own  wants, 
when  he  manufactures  what  he  needs,  it  is  very 
evident  that  he  has  his  own  problems  and  that  he 
regulates  his  own  activities.  When  people  begin 
to  co-operate  the  question  has  a  new  element. 
If  the  labor  is  free  labor,  co-operation  implies 
consent,  and,  although  the  work  undertaken  may 
not  represent  what  appeals  most  strongly  to  all, 
yet  the  fact  that  they  are  co-operating  implies 
that  it  appeals  to  all.  The  regulation  of  the 
labor  comes  from  within  the  group. 

In  early  stages  of  society  the  regulation  of 
labor  was  a  serious  problem,  but  the  key  to  its 
solution  came  from  the  treasure  house  from  which 
man's  tools  were  derived  —  his  own  body. 
Rhythm,  which  is  the  key  to  all  primitive  regu- 
lation of  labor,  is  organic.  All  accounts  which 


IN  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION          163 

we  have  of  the  lowest  stages  of  culture  show  that 
all  such  people  have  some  rhythmical  form  of 
regulating  their  labor.  It  is  probable  that  the 
advantage  of  working  in  a  common  rhythm 
would  soon  be  discovered.  The  common  end 
and  the  possession  of  a  similar  nature  would  oper- 
ate so  as  to  force  this  upon  the  attention.  The 
primitive  dance,  which  holds  in  solution  both 
poetry  and  music,  is  an  effort  to  secure  co-opera- 
tive action. 

The  regulation  of  free  labor  where  the  regula- 
tion comes  from  within,  and  where  the  labor  is 
directed  toward  the  accomplishment  of  a  problem 
that  appeals  to  all,  is  to  be  distinguished  from 
slave  labor  in  which  the  workers  are  regulated 
from  without  and  are  destitute  of  a  problem 
that  appeals  to  them.  To  state  the  difference 
ought  to  be  sufficient  to  enable  one  to  choose  be- 
tween the  two  methods  for  educational  purposes. 

No  epoch  of  the  past  is  of  sufficient  impor- 
tance to  claim  the  entire  attention  of  the  child. 
His  interest  is  primarily  in  the  present.  No  use 
of  the  past  which  ignores  this  fundamental  fact 
can  be  justified.  Its  justification  must  always  be 
found  in  the  nature  of  the  child  and  in  the  social 
needs  of  the  present.  Processes  which  represent 
work  done  with  simple  tools  without  the  aid  of 
machinery  will  always  be  significant  to  the  child. 
Cooking,  sewing,  and  other  forms  of  industry 


1 64  THE  PLACE  OF  INDUSTRIES 

that  may  be  carried  on  with  the  simplest  tools 
are  invaluable  at  this  time.  To  confine  indus- 
trial work  in  the  school  to  belated  forms  of  indus- 
try would  be  to  deprive  the  child  of  his  full 
heritage.  Processes  which  have  been  superseded 
in  the  industrial  world  by  more  complex  forms 
are  as  significant  in  education  as  processes  which 
have  not  kept  pace  with  the  general  advance. 
Processes  which  represent  the  co-operation  of 
many  individuals  in  great  public  works  should 
find  a  place  beside  those  which  represent  the  sat- 
isfaction of  individual  needs.  Activities  that  min- 
ister to  the  needs  of  the  social  group,  whether  it 
be  the  clan,  the  tribe,  the  village  community,  the 
manor,  the  city-state,  or  the  nation,  are  more  sig- 
nificant to  the  child,  if  approached  through  the 
medium  of  his  own  constructive  activities,  than 
those  which  minister  merely  to  personal  needs. 

The  transition  from  barbarism  to  civilization, 
if  approached  through  the  medium  of  the  child's 
constructive  activities,  is  as  fascinating  to  the 
child  as  to  the  university  student  who  is  able  to 
carry  on  independent  research.  If  the  work  is 
presented  so  that  the  child  can  get  his  own  prob- 
lems and  work  them  out  in  a  concrete  way  he 
can  early  learn  the  value  of  co-operative  effort, 
and,  at  the  same  time,  get  the  basis  for  a  clear, 
historical  perspective.  The  child  is  interested  in 
determining  in  what  parts  of  the  earth  the  earli- 


IN  ELEMENTAR  Y  ED  UCA  TION          1 6 5 

est  civilizations  would  be  most  likely  to  develop. 
He  can  easily  be  led  to  see  that  they  first  appeared 
in  the  fertile  river  valleys  that  were  protected  by 
natural  barriers,  and  that  the  work  of  clearing 
the  forests  and  draining  the  marshes  and  fens 
presented  problems  of  such  difficulty  that  they 
could  be  solved  only  by  organized  effort.  When 
this  fact  is  understood  it  is  easy  to  see  why  the 
development  of  agriculture  in  the  rich  river  val- 
leys was  always  paralleled  by  the  growth  of  the 
city-state  or  by  the  development  of  a  feudal  sys- 
tem. 

The  contrast  which  the  conditions  in  an  arid 
region  present  to  the  situation  in  the  rich  river 
valleys  lends  an  added  interest  to  a  subject  which 
represents  a  native  interest  of  mankind.  When 
the  child  has  the  opportunity  to  study  the  topog- 
raphy of  the  country  in  a  graphic  way  he  is  as 
ready  as  anyone  to  suggest  ways  of  changing 
the  course  of  rivers,  building  reservoirs,  digging 
ditches,  and  inventing  countless  devices  which 
have  been  used  since  man  first  began  to  reclaim 
the  desert  regions. 

Phoenicia  presents  another  interesting  type  that 
is  appropriate  to  study  in  this  connection.  It  is 
interesting  to  discover  why  commerce  developed 
in  Phoenicia,  how  it  was  carried  on,  what  the  sailors 
knew  about  the  earth,  what  the  routes  of  travel 
were,  what  the  nature  of  their  boats  and  cargoes, 


1 66  THE  PLACE  OF  INDUSTRIES 

and  the  nature  of  other  questions  with  which 
they  had  to  deal. 

In  connection  with  the  study  of  the  state  of 
geographical  knowledge  at  this  time,  the  ques- 
tion naturally  arises  how  people  learned  more  of 
the  world.  This  topic  makes  an  easy  transition 
to  the  subject  of  exploration,  which  is  especially 
appropriate  in  intermediate  grades.  The  child, 
as  well  as  the  adult,  is  interested  in  discovering 
how  the  exploration  of  each  period  has  been 
affected  by  the  knowledge  and  the  inventions  of 
the  time,  and  how  by  currents  of  wind  and  water. 
He  is  equally  interested  in  forecasting  the  effect 
of  the  explorations  made  upon  the  various  peoples 
concerned,  and  in  reading  accounts  of  the  same 
in  books  to  test  the  soundness  of  his  own  judg- 
ment. His  own  experience  along  constructive 
lines  will  lead  him  to  see  that  a  period  of  explora- 
tion is  apt  to  be  followed  by  one  of  colonization. 
The  practical  problems  connected  with  colonial 
life  should  be  treated  in  such  a  way  as  to  afford 
the  child  a  breadth  of  view  which  includes  a 
clear  picture  of  conditions  in  the  mother  country. 
This  serves  as  a  necessary  background  for  a  sym- 
pathetic appreciation  of  the  life  of  the  people  in 
pioneer  conditions. 

There  are  many  problems  in  primitive  engi- 
neering, architecture,  and  mechanics  that  are 
especially  adapted  to  intermediate  grades.  In 


IN  ELEMENTARY  EDUCA  TION          167 

the  study  of  the  laying  out  and  building  of  roads 
it  will  be  interesting  to  trace  our  own  routes  of 
travel  by  land  back  to  the  animal  trails.  We  are 
not  accustomed  to  think  of  animals  as  engineers, 
yet  Mr.  Hornaday  writes  concerning  the  bison : 
"...  the  trail  of  a  herd  in  search  of  water  is 
usually  as  good  a  piece  of  engineering  as  could 
be  executed  by  the  best  railway  surveyor,  and  is 
governed  by  the  same  principles.  It  always  fol- 
lows the  level  of  the  valley,  swerves  around  the 
high  points,  and  crosses  the  stream  repeatedly  in 
order  to  avoid  climbing  up  from  the  level." x  The 
history  of  the  changes  that  have  taken  place  in 
the  trails  of  animals,  the  causes  for  the  same, 
the  improvements  in  the  means  of  travel  and 
their  effect  upon  the  relations  among  neighboring 
cities  and  states,  the  digging  of  tunnels,  the  con- 
struction of  viaducts  and  bridges  —  all  furnish 
problems  of  real  value  at  this  time. 

The  child's  interest  in  the  public  buildings  of 
his  own  vicinity  may  be  utilized  by  simpler  prob- 
lems which  are  involved  in  the  understanding 
of  ancient  public  works.  How  the  immense 
public  buildings  of  antiquity  were  constructed ; 
how  the  character  of  the  material  affected  the 
mode  of  construction ;  how  the  materials  were 

1 W.  T.  HORNADAY,  "  The  Extermination  of  the  American 
Bison,"  Smithsonian  Report  of  the  United  States  National 
Museum,  1887,  p.  417. 


1 68  THE  PLACE  OF  INDUSTRIES 

tested  ;  how  the  principles  of  construction  were 
discovered;  how  roofs  were  planned  for  the 
massive  structures,  and  how  these  were  related  to 
the  climate ;  how  the  immense  work  was  carried 
on  by  co-operative  labor  with  the  simplest  tools 
and  industrial  appliances ;  how  systems  of  forti- 
fication were  planned ;  how  heavy  objects  were 
transported ;  in  short,  how  the  simplest  begin- 
nings were  made  in  the  departments  of  hydraulic, 
bridge  and  road,  sanitary,  and  mechanical  en- 
gineering, is  a  subject  worthy  of  the  child's  atten- 
tion and  one  that  may  be  brought  within  the 
easy  range  of  his  understanding. 

Until  our  knowledge  of  education  shall  have 
become  more  scientific  it  will  probably  be  best 
to  leave  considerable  margin  for  optional  work. 
There  is  need  in  this  as  in  other  work  for  guid- 
ance. The  teacher's  influence  should  operate 
to  insure  the  selection  of  problems  of  sufficiently 
difficult  technique  to  be  stimulating,  but  not 
difficult  enough  to  be  discouraging. 

Perhaps  the  more  important  questions  that 
cluster  about  the  handicraft  period  are  those 
bound  up  with  such  questions  as  the  freeing  of 
labor,  the  application  of  the  power  of  the  wind 
and  water  to  simple  machinery,  the  consequent 
change  in  manufactures,  the  development  of 
commerce,  the  work  of  the  Hanseatic  league, 
the  growth  of  cities  during  the  Middle  Ages,  the 


IN  ELEMENTAR  Y  ED  UCA  TION          1 69 

regulation  of  labor  by  means  of  guilds,  the  advance 
made  in  more  accurate  measurement,  the  artistic 
work  of  the  craftsmen,  and  the  spirit  which  gave 
rise  to  the  cathedrals.  These  subjects  lend 
themselves  to  various  forms  of  expression  and 
serve  to  enrich  many  experiences  of  the  child. 
The  handicraft  period  finds  its  counterpart  in  the" 
child,  not  in  such  a  differentiation  of  labor  as  will 
make  him  master  of  a  craft,  but  in  a  differentia- 
tion of  interests  which  previously  were  bound  up 
in  a  more  undifferentiated  form.  His  practical 
activities  in  connection  with  such  materials  are 
for  psychological  and  educational  rather  than  for 
economical  ends. 

No  better  means  are  available  for  assisting  the 
child  to  understand  the  complex  industrial 
organization  of  the  present  than  to  give  him  an 
experience  in  some  of  the  more  fundamental 
processes.  The  very  fact  that  he  has  produced 
raw  material,  and  that  later  he  manufactured  and 
used  it,  affords  him  an  experience  in  a  whole 
round  of  activities,  which  enables  him  to  place 
any  isolated  activity  in  relation  to  the  whole 
system  of  which  it  is  a  part.  In  some  cases  it 
may  be  found  convenient  for  some  members  of  a 
class  to  prepare  the  material  for  others  to  manu- 
facture. This  division  of  labor  is  a  type  of  what 
is  going  on  in  the  larger  world.  Some  children 
will  excel  in  one  line  of  work,  some  in  another. 


1 70  THE  PLA  CE  OF  IND  USTRIES 

The  recognition  of  this  fact  is  significant  with 
regard  to  understanding  the  reason  for  specializa- 
tion in  industrial  activities. 

If  such  problems  as  those  suggested  in  the 
preceding  pages  be  taken  up  in  the  elementary 
school,  the  way  is  prepared  for  a  profitable  study 
of  the  main  steps  in  the  industrial  revolution  in 
England  and  the  United  States  during  the  last 
year  of  the  course.  This  study  affords  an 
admirable  opportunity  for  summing  up  the  results 
of  the  previous  years'  work  and  of  more  con- 
sciously recognizing  inter-relations  among  the 
various  forces  involved.  These  inter-relations 
are  felt  in  earlier  years;  they  are  recognized 
practically,  and  in  some  cases  they  are  formu- 
lated ;  but  at  this  time  there  is  a  more  distinct 
place  for  formulation.  This  change  corresponds 
to  the  larger  place  that  intellectual  interests  now 
take  in  the  life  of  the  child  in  contrast  to  the 
purely  practical.  But  even  now,  care  should  be 
taken  not  to  force  intellectual  activity  unduly. 

The  child,  who  has  traced  the  tool  from  the 
action  of  his  own  body  through  the  various  stages 
of  its  development,  has  felt,  as  he  has  wielded  it, 
the  rhythmic  movements  of  economical  adjust- 
ments. He  is  now  prepared  to  see  how  the 
mechanical  principles  with  which  he  became 
familiar  in  the  study  of  primitive  life  are  utilized 
by  means  of  better  appliances ;  and  how  their 


IN  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION          I?I 

action,  which  has  been  rendered  rhythmical 
and  hence  automatic,  may  be  handed  over 
to  a  machine.  What  this  machine  is,  what  its 
purpose,  how  constructed,  how  controlled,  and 
how  used  for  the  amelioration  of  society,  these 
are  the  problems  that  the  school  should  under- 
take to  teach  him  to  grapple  with,  rather  than 
to  occupy  him  with  activities  that  tend  to  render 
him  as  automatic,  as  unfeeling,  as  a  part  of  the 
machine  itself. 

The  construction  of  simple  machines  in  the 
workshop,  and  the  tracing  of  the  connections 
between  the  steps  in  the  process  from  the  stage 
of  the  hand,  through  the  stage  of  the  tool,  to  that 
of  the  machine,  with  its  many  possible  modifica- 
tions, is  an  educative  work.  It  will  train  the  child 
to  control  machinery  rather  than  be  controlled 
by  it.  It  will  help  to  advance  the  movement 
most  necessary  at  present  in  order  to  facilitate 
the  adjustment  of  labor  questions. 

The  present  difficulty  consists  largely  in  the 
fact  that  the  industrial  processes  have  been 
improved  without  a  corresponding  development 
in  the  lives  of  the  workers.  As  long  as  the 
worker  could  get  the  reflex  effect  of  his  own 
work,  his  occupation  was  an  expression  of  his 
own  desires.  Now  that  the  process  is  so  com- 
plicated it  is  difficult  for  the  worker  to  realize 
that  he  has  a  problem  or  that  he  has  any  con- 


1 72  THE  PLA  CE  OF  IND  USTRIES 

trol  over  his  own  activities,  He  is  in  need  of 
an  intelligence  trained  to  recognize  the  various 
stages  of  the  work  and  his  relation  to  the  whole; 
he  is  in  need  of  sympathies  broad  enough  to  take 
in,  at  least  in  so  far  as  the  relations  of  his  acts  to 
them  are  concerned,  all  those  who  are  to  use  the 
product  of  his  labor.  Under  such  conditions 
manufacturers  will  not  be  obliged  to  make  use  of 
inferior  machinery  in  order  to  supply  labor  of  an 
unskilled  sort.  To  promote  the  realization  of  an 
ideal  which  shall  secure  this  high  type  of  human- 
ity is  certainly  a  worthy  object  of  education. 


CHAPTER  V. 
PRACTICAL  APPLICATIONS.— Continued. 

THE  PROBLEM  OF  THE  TEACHER  WHO  IS  NOT  FUR- 
NISHED WITH  MATERIALS  AND  TOOLS  FOR 
INDUSTRIAL  ACTIVITIES. 

BECAUSE  the  materials  necessary  for  working 
out  many  of  the  problems  suggested  in  the  pre- 
ceding chapter  are  not  yet  incorporated  in  text- 
books, many  teachers  may  feel  at  a  loss  to  know 
how  to  put  the  ideas  suggested  into  actual  prac- 
tice. Because  the  idea  prevails  that  industrial 
training  requires  expensive  equipments,  many 
teachers  fail  to  see  the  opportunities  presented  on 
every  side.  To  such  teachers  this  chapter  is 
addressed;  for  the  best  educational  results  can 
be  secured  only  through  the  co-operation  of  all 
the  people  who  have  a  share  in  the  work. 

To  undertake  several  new  kinds  of  work  at 
one  time  would  certainly  be  unwise.  To  under- 
take nothing  new  would  certainly  be  more 
unwise.  The  better  plan  is  to  keep  the  main 
part  of  the  work  in  lines  which  are  fairly  familiar, 
leaving  a  narrow  margin  for  careful  experimen- 
tation. By  following  such  a  method  the  teacher 
may  feel  perfectly  safe  in  introducing  a  new 
form  of  work;  for  until  she  becomes  convinced 


1 74  THE  PLA  CE  OF  IND USTRIES 

of  its  value  she  may  treat  it  merely  as  a  side- 
light to  some  phase  of  the  regular  work.  As 
time  passes,  however,  the  teacher  can  readily 
discover  in  the  response  made  by  the  children 
whether  it  is  best  to  incorporate  the  new  feature 
into  the  body  of  the  curriculum,  or  whether  to 
let  it  give  place  to  something  which  proves  to  be 
of  greater  value.  The  experience  which  indi- 
vidual teachers  gain  in  this  way  is  invaluable  as 
a  basis  upon  which  to  proceed  in  carrying  out 
the  more  organized  movement  which  is  bound  to 
come.  It  is  the  rude  structure  which  bridges 
the  chasm  between  formal  education  and  that 
which  is  real.  It  is  one  phase  of  the  pioneer 
work  which  must  be  done  before  the  people  are 
ready  to  take  up  the  cause. 

Perhaps  no  better  means  are  available  for  the 
teacher  to  gain  courage  for  going  on  with  such 
pioneer  work,  and  ideas  for  enriching  the  course 
of  study,  than  to  re-read  the  history  of  colonial 
times.  The  efforts  of  our  forefathers  in  establish- 
ing a  foothold  in  a  new  country  may  well  serve 
to  inspire  us  with  courage  in  undertaking  pioneer 
educational  work. 

The  popular  conception  that  industrial  training 
cannot  be  introduced  without  a  considerable 
expenditure  of  money  rests  upon  a  misconcep- 
tion of  its  nature  and  purpose.  We  have  recently 
become  so  accustomed  to  the  use  of  commercially 


IN  ELEMENTARY  EDUCA  TION         1 75 

prepared  materials  and  finished  products  that  we 
are  disposed  to  carry  the  idea  over  into  educa- 
tion and  apply  it  so  as  to  defeat  educational  ends. 
If  the  purpose  of  industrial  work  in  the  school  is 
to  secure  certain  tangible  results,  questions  of 
economy  dictate  the  use  of  prepared  materials 
and  ready-made  tools.  If,  however,  the  purpose 
is  to  educate  through  industrial  processes,  ques- 
tions of  economy  dictate  that  we  should  employ 
methods  which  produce  educative  results.  To 
furnish  the  child  with  commercially  prepared 
materials  is  to  cut  him  off  from  those  phases  of 
the  industrial  process  which  relate  him  to  the 
natural  resources  of  his  own  environment. 

Rather  than  be  discouraged  at  the  outset 
because  of  the  lack  of  money  for  a  material 
equipment,  the  teacher  should  see  in  the  situa- 
tion the  opportunity  for  the  children  to  come 
into  closer  relation  to  nature,  and  an  opportunity 
for  herself  to  gain  an  appreciation  of  the  mean- 
ing of  industrial  work  before  a  general  demand 
is  made  for  it.  She  should  see  in  it,  also,  the 
opportunity  to  develop  the  spirit  which  alone  can 
give  meaning  and  value  to  equipments,  and  which 
will  make  of  them  real  instruments  in  the  educa- 
tion of  the  child. 

The  teacher  may  not  see  her  way  clear,  at 
first,  to  set  aside  more  than  one  period  a  week 
for  practical  work.  Possibly  she  may  find  it 


1 76  THE  PLA  CE  OF  IND  USTRIES 

the  wiser  plan  to  begin  such  work  out  of  school 
hours  and  let  it  be  entirely  optional.  But  grad- 
ually she  should  try  to  make  it,  not  something 
apart  from  the  regular  program  of  the  school,  but 
a  means  of  giving  new  meaning  to  each  and  every 
subject  of  the  curriculum. 

In  beginning  the  work  it  will  be  well  for  the 
teacher  to  have  in  mind  several  things  which  the 
children  may  make  or  represent,  and  give  them  a 
chance  to  consider  them  with  her  and  to  choose 
that  which  they  think  they  can  do  best.  Let 
them  suggest  ways  of  getting  materials  and  pre- 
paring them  for  use.  To  be  sure  children,  as  well 
as  adults,  sometimes  make  foolish  suggestions,  but 
teachers  may  well  profit  from  the  contributions 
which  children  make  regarding  practical  matters. 
The  new  interest  which  the  children  take  when 
they  feel  responsible  for  what  they  do  and  say  is 
invaluable  in  the  development  of  self-confidence 
and  self-respect. 

There  are  many  materials  which  the  children 
may  help  procure  for  purposes  of  practical  work 
in  the  school.  Sand  is  to  be  found  in  most 
places  and  is  invaluable  as  a  means  of  represent- 
ing geographical  relations.  When  the  children 
are  trying  to  get  a  clear  picture  of  such  relations, 
and  trying  to  express  it  to  others,  they  are  in  a 
position  to  appreciate  the  value  and  the  proper 
use  of  sand  in  the  schoolroom.  Let  the  children 


IN  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION          177 

suggest  ways  of  getting  it  and  bringing  it  to  the 
school,  and  help  them  to  decide  which  way  is  the 
best.  Then  a  box  must  be  prepared  for  it,  which 
the  larger  boys  can  make  out  of  dry-goods  boxes. 
There  should  be  one  box  as  large  as  the  top  of  a 
kitchen  table,  and  twice  as  large  if  there  is  room 
to  place  it  in  the  schoolroom.  The  sides  of  the 
box  need  not  be  more  than  three  or  four  inches 
deep.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  line  the  box  with 
oilcloth,  but  if  that  is  not  available  the  cracks 
may  be  stopped  with  putty  or  clay.  The  cumu- 
lative interest  which  arises  from  participating  in 
this  co-operative  work  presents  the  teacher  with 
an  admirable  opportunity  for  directing  the  chil- 
dren in  a  thoughtful  study  of  geography,  and  in 
those  phases  of  history  in  which  geographical 
ideas  are  important  features.  But  if  the  way  is 
not  prepared,  if  no  idea  of  the  use  of  the  sand  is 
present  in  the  minds  of  the  children,  if  the 
strongest  suggestion  they  get  from  it  is  to  throw 
it  or  to  use  it  in  annoying  a  neighbor,  the  presence 
of  the  sand-table  will  merely  be  one  more  oppor- 
tunity for  disorder.  The  abuse  of  any  material 
and  instrument  is  possible,  but  it  should  in  no 
wise  keep  us  from  making  a  right  use  of  the  edu- 
cational means  at  our  command. 

Clay  serves  a  variety  of  purposes,  and  can 
be  purchased  at  little  cost;  but  where  suitable 
clay-beds  are  accessible,  it  is  far  more  educative 


1 7  8  THE  PLA  CE  OF  IND  US  TRIES 

for  the  children  to  go  to  the  spot,  to  notice  how 
it  is  placed,  to  dig  it  out — if  they  have  the  right 
to  do  so — to  tread,  wash,  and  knead  it,  and  pre- 
pare it  for  use.  The  trip  to  get  the  clay  is  inter- 
esting to  all  children  in  itself.  The  preparation 
and  care  of  it  might  be  irksome  if  there  were  not 
present  an  idea  of  doing  something  with  it  later. 
Having  this  idea,  the  children  will  gladly  co- 
operate to  secure  a  small  barrel  or  an  earthen 
jar  in  which  to  keep  the  clay,  and  smooth  boards 
or  pieces  of  oilcloth  to  protect  their  desks  when 
they  are  modeling. 

The  gravel  pits,  the  stone  quarries,  and  other 
mineral  resources  in  the  locality  are  interesting 
to  every  child  from  his  earliest  years.  Collec- 
tions may  be  made  of  the  different  local  varieties, 
and  these  should  be  related  to  such  literature  of 
the  subject  as  the  teacher  is  able  to  find.  Col- 
lections should  also  be  made  of  stones  shaped 
into  natural  tools  and  weapons,  or  those  which 
could  easily  be  wrought  into  such  forms.  Stones 
suitable  for  cutting,  pounding,  grinding;  stones 
which  crumble  when  heated ;  and  those  which  will 
stand  the  heat — many  of  these  may  be  gathered 
and  labeled  by  the  children,  and  be  preserved  as 
a  part  of  their  industrial  museum. 

Lessons  in  history,  geography,  and  nature- 
study  frequently  include  lessons  about  the  textile 
industry.  In  most  places  children  can  find  at 


IN  ELEMENTARY  EDUCA  TION          1 79 

least  a  few  natural  materials  to  illustrate  typical 
stages  in  the  development  of  the  art.  Tough 
barks  may  be  manufactured  into  utensils  or 
shredded  so  as  to  make  fibers;  willows,  tough 
branches  of  all  kinds,  may  be  made  into  splints 
or  woven  in  their  natural  form ;  tough  grasses, 
rushes,  .and  reeds  may  be  collected  from  the 
marshes  and  meadows,  and  straw  and  corn  husks 
from  the  farm.  In  country  schools  it  ought  not 
to  be  difficult  to  secure  a  fleece  of  wool,  and,  if 
any  of  the  children  have  access  to  a  sheep  pas- 
ture in  the  spring  time,  enough  tags  of  wool  may 
be  collected  from  the  underbrush  to  provide  ma- 
terial for  work  for  several  days.  If  flax  seed  can 
be  obtained,  the  older  children  can  profitably 
raise  some  flax  in  a  school  garden,  and  although 
the  products  of  the  garden  may  not  furnish  ma- 
terials for  social  occupations,  the  experiment  in 
itself  will  be  of  value  to  the  children  at  the  time, 
will  help  them  to  understand  related  accounts 
they  may  read  from  books,  and  will  furnish  expe- 
rience which  will  tend  to  bring  them  into  sympa- 
thetic relations  with  people  who  are  sharing  in 
the  world's  work. 

In  connection  with  the  collection  of  materials 
for  textile  work  the  children  may  well  collect 
such  roots,  bark,  husks  of  nuts,  flowers,  and  fruits 
as  will  yield  a  dye  which  they  may  use  in  color- 
ing. To  be  sure,  they  can  buy  "Diamond 


1 80  THE  PLA  CE  OF  IND  US  TRIES 

Dyes"  for  ten  cents  a  package,  but  the  use  of 
such  dyes  is  not  educative.  By  using  prepared 
dyes  the  children  lose  the  opportunity  to  experi- 
ment with  materials.  Colored  earths  and  other 
mineral  products  which  yield  color  may  also  be 
collected  and  used  in  experimental  ways.  Where 
parents  are  informed  concerning  the  nature  of 
the  work,  they  will  allow  much  of  this  experi- 
mentation to  be  done  in  the  home.  The  ever- 
present  stove  in  the  country  schoolhouse  may  be 
turned  into  account  as  part  of  the  equipment. 
In  schools  heated  from  the  basement  and  not 
equipped  with  a  laboratory,  an  oil  stove  may  be 
pressed  into  the  service  of  furnishing  the  neces- 
sary heat  for  dyeing;  but  in  no  case  should  the 
teacher  permit  a  careless  use  of  fire. 

Since  a  large  part  of  the  work  in  geography 
consists  of  a  study  of  the  production,  manufac- 
ture, and  distribution  of  foods,  the  teacher  ought 
to  find  no  difficulty  in  selecting  topics  which  em- 
body a  great  variety  of  industrial  processes. 
Field  trips,  excursions,  and  gardening  may  be 
used  to  make  the  children  familiar  with  the  proc- 
esses of  production  in  their  own  community. 
Excursions  to  mills  and  bakeries,  practical  lessons 
in  cooking  which  may  be  learned  either  at  home 
or  in  the  school,  and  constructive  work  which 
represents  processes  of  manufacture  which  the 
children  may  have  difficulty  in  carrying  on  in  a 


IN  ELEMENTAR  Y  ED  UCA  TION         1 8 1 

real  way,  furnish  a  sound  basis  for  a  study  of  the 
processes  of  manufacturing  food-stuffs.  A  visit 
to  the  grocery  store,  observation  of  the  trade 
which  takes  place  in  the  home  community,  the 
routes  of  travel  and  modes  of  transportation, 
together  with  the  representation  of  the  same 
in  graphic  forms,  serve  as  a  mode  of  approach 
to  larger  problems  of  distribution  and  exchange. 

Collections  which  illustrate  the  food-stuffs  of 
the  community,  as  well  as  those  imported  to  it, 
may  be  used  as  a  mode  of  approach  to  many 
problems  in  commercial  geography.  A  shock  of 
corn  or  wheat,  vegetables,  fruit,  a  pan  of  milk, 
may  be  procured  with  little  trouble,  and  may 
furnish  material  for  many  practical  lessons  in  the 
study  of  foods. 

Although  it  would  be  difficult  to  give  sys- 
tematic work  in  cooking  without  an  equipment,  it 
is  possible  to  study  typical  vegetables,  fruits, 
grains,  and  meats  with  reference  to  the  best  mode 
of  cooking  them.  In  schools  where  it  is  neces- 
sary for  many  children  to  remain  during  the 
noon  hour,  it  ought  to  be  possible  for  the  school 
to  make  provision  for  giving  the  children  at  least 
one  kind  of  warm  food,  which  could  be  prepared 
by  one  of  the  classes  with  the  use  of  only  a  few 
cooking  utensils. 

Materials  for  sewing  are  those  most  easily 
procured,  and  if  the  articles  made  are  those  in 


1 82  THE  PLACE  OF  INDUSTRIES 

which  the  children  take  a  genuine  interest,  the 
teacher  need  not  be  disturbed  if  she  is  not  able 
to  relate  each  period  devoted  to  sewing  to  some 
other  subject  pursued  in  the  school.  Yet  as  the 
work  proceeds,  much  is  lost  if  the  children  do 
not  get  ideas  which  will  help  them  to  understand 
the  social  significance  of  such  work. 

Sewing  materials  for  the  younger  children  can 
readily  be  obtained  from  the  rolls  of  scraps 
which  may  be  found  in  every  home.  Merchants 
often  have  odds  and  ends  which  they  are  willing 
to  donate  for  such  purposes.  These  materials 
may  be  used  in  making  dolls'  clothes,  and  the 
bedding,  curtains,  and  other  furnishings  required 
for  a  doll's  house.  The  children  may  also  make 
bags  for  their  materials,  and  hem  towels  and 
dust-cloths  which  they  need  for  their  school 
housekeeping. 

The  older  children  may  use  the  period  devoted 
to  sewing  in  making  articles  of  clothing  they 
may  need.  This  is  by  no  means  an  experiment, 
but  is  practiced  in  many  schools.  The  girls  of 
the  eighth-grade  graduating  class  in  some  schools 
make  their  own  graduating  dresses.  Boys  take 
as  much  interest  in  sewing  as  girls,  when  not 
influenced  by  some  superficial  adult,  but  they 
may  not  care  to  make  the  same  things.  A  boy 
in  one  of  the  cities  of  Illinois  asked  if  he  might 
make  a  pair  of  "overalls,"  and  his  teacher  wisely 


IN  ELEMENTARY  ED UCA  TION         1 8 3 

permitted  him  to  do  it.  When  parents  realize 
that  their  children  are  actually  learning  to  cut, 
fit,  and  sew  garments,  they  will  be  willing  to 
provide  all  the  materials  for  sewing  which  the 
teacher  can  find  time  to  have  used. 

Wood-work  as  usually  carried  on  in  the  schools 
requires  a  special  room  equipped  with  benches 
and  tools,  as  well  as  considerable  lumber  and 
nails.  Much  as  children  enjoy  the  period  when 
they  are  allowed  to  take  up  such  work,  they  often 
go  through  the  course  in  manual  training  without 
gaining  any  conception  of  its  social  significance. 
Where  this  is  true  it  is  largely  because  manual 
training  is  isolated  from  the  other  subjects  of 
study  and  made  an  end  in  itself.  Such  isolated 
work,  no  matter  how  expensive  the  equipment, 
cannot  compare  in  educational  value  with  that 
carried  on  with  the  barest  equipment,  yet  con- 
sciously related  to  the  curriculum  as  a  whole. 

No  course  of  study  is  so  formal  that  it  does 
not  include  such  topics  as  the  various  kinds  of 
shelter  which  are  used  by  different  peoples,  the 
methods  of  building,  and  the  tools  used.  To  be 
of  any  real  value  to  the  child,  such  topics  need 
to  be  illustrated.  Pictures  are  useful,  but  the 
child  needs  not  merely  to  receive  impressions,  but 
to  have  an  outlet  for  his  growing  images.  Such 
opportunities  need  not  be  denied,  for  many  of 
the  materials  are  not  expensive.  Typical  dwell- 


1 84  THE  PLA CE  OF  INDUSTRIES 

ings  of  the  primitive  type  may  be  represented  by 
the  use  of  bark  and  twigs.  The  materials  essen- 
tial to  the  construction  of  a  model  of  a  log  house 
can  be  found  almost  anywhere.  These  materials 
can  be  used  with  the  simplest  kind  of  tools — in 
many  cases  natural  tools.  But  a  few  tools  are 
very  desirable.  Among  such  the  pocketknife 
owned  by  every  boy,  and  almost  every  girl,  may 
be  called  into  service.  Undoubtedly  volunteers 
will  bring  in  a  hammer,  a  saw,  or  any  other  tool 
which  seems  to  be  needed  for  the  time,  in  order 
that  the  work  may  go  on. 

Building-blocks,  which  are  invaluable  in  the 
lower  grades  for  representing  houses,  barns, 
fences,  wagons,  trains  of  cars,  and  many  other 
images  of  the  child,  may  be  made  by  the  older 
children  out  of  short  pieces  which  can  easily  be 
procured  in  places  where  lumber  is  used  for 
manufacturing  purposes.  In  country  places  it  is 
almost  always  possible  to  procure  such  pieces 
from  the  refuse  where  new  buildings  are  being 
erected,  or  from  the  lumber  pile  of  some  gener- 
ous farmer.  In  measuring  and  sawing  the  blocks 
there  is  an  opportunity  for  careful  measurement 
and  work  of  considerable  precision.  While  it  is 
not  necessary  for  the  blocks  to  be  of  certain 
sizes,  it  is  desirable  that  their  dimensions  be 
simple  enough  for  the  children  to  work  with  in  an 
intellectual  way.  For  instance,  it  is  better  to 


» 


IN  ELEMENTAR  Y  ED  UCA  TION         1 8  5 

have  blocks  2X4X6  inches  than  i|X3fX6J 
inches.  Again,  it  is  well  in  planning  the  making 
of  blocks  to  provide  for  enough  of  the  same  shape 
and  size  so  that  in  building  the  children  can  get 
the  idea  of  rhythm  and  order.  Square  blocks 
cut  diagonally  give  opportunity  for  a  greater 
variety  in  building,  and  handles  of  wornout 
brooms  cut  in  suitable  lengths  will  be  found  use- 
ful to  the  child  in  expressing  many  ideas  for 
which  the  square  blocks  are  inadequate.  There 
are  few  places  where  it  is  not  possible  to  find  a 
pile  of  discarded  brick,  which  are  capable  of 
rendering  excellent  service  as  building  material. 
As  work  with  such  wood  as  can  be  collected 
in  its  natural  state,  and  with  the  waste  products  of 
the  industrial  life,  goes  on,  the  difficulties  experi- 
enced, together  with  the  sense  of  satisfaction  in 
building,  are  such  as  to  create  a  demand  on  the 
part  of  the  children  for  commercially  prepared 
materials  and  a  set  of  tools.  The  example  set 
by  the  Ethical  Culture  Schools  in  New  York  in 
providing  a  workbench  and  a  set  of  tools  for  each 
room  may  well  be  followed.  In  that  school  the 
benches  are  used  to  supplement  well-equipped 
manual-training  rooms,  rather  than  as  a  substitute 
for  them  ;  but  in  schools  not  so  equipped,  the 
single  bench  and  a  set  of  tools  may  serve  as  a 
means  of  transition  from  the  cruder  work  with 
such  tools  and  materials  as  can  be  found,  to  the 


1 86  THE  PLA  CE  OF  IND  USTRIES 

work  in  a  school  which  is  well  equipped  for  in- 
dustrial training. 

When  once  the  teacher  and  the  children  begin 
to  search  for  materials,  it  will  be  surprising  to 
find  the  number  of  things  which  can  be  found 
with  very  little  trouble.  Such  objects  as  stones, 
bones,  horns,  seeds,  nuts,  acorn-cups,  rose-hips, 
river-  and  sea-shells,  and  the  shells  of  gourds 
and  other  hard-shelled  vegetables,  all  can  be 
used  in  a  variety  of  ways  which  will  unite  the 
child  by  stronger  ties  to  his  natural  and  social 
environment. 

In  exploiting  his  environment  for  materials, 
the  child  brings  back,  in  addition  to  the  tangible 
materials  which  he  needs  to  use,  ideas  and  sug- 
gestions which  affect  his  work  in  many  ways. 
The  ideas  which  the  child  gains  from  observing 
nature,  and  which  he  represents  in  dramatic  play, 
in  paintings,  drawings,  quick  blackboard  sketches, 
and  in  modeling  in  clay  and  in  sand,  have  a  real 
value  as  well  as  the  ideas  which  he  gets  through 
selecting  and  preparing  materials  which  he  needs 
in  constructing  objects  which  he  can  use  in  a  real 
or  a  symbolic  way.  The  contact  which  the  child 
gets  with  nature  is  of  more  value  in  the  early 
years  than  the  constructions  which  he  makes  out 
of  materials  brought  home.  Yet  both  phases  of 
work  are  necessary,  and  as  the  child  advances  in 
years,  real  construction  which  requires  more  and 


IN  ELEMENTAR  Y  ED  UCA  TION         1 8 ^ 

more  accurate  methods  of  work  deserves  a  larger 
and  larger  place. 

Industrial  education  need  not  be  delayed  on 
account  of  difficulty  in  procuring  materials.  The 
children  are  willing  to  furnish  their  share  and  can 
find  most  valuable  occupations  in  so  doing.  The 
farmer,  the  merchant,  the  lumberman,  the  manu- 
facturer, each  in  turn,  may  easily  be  induced  to 
co-operate  to  the  extent  of  allowing  the  by-pro- 
ducts of  his  industry  to  be  used.  In  addition 
to  this,  the  school  garden  may  be  used  so  as  to 
furnish  a  delightful  occupation  to  the  children  at 
the  time  and  products  which  may  be  used  in 
school  lunches,  for  cooking,  drying,  and  preserving 
foods,  as  well  as  for  experimental  work.  When 
all  these  sources,  and  many  others  which  will  sug- 
gest themselves  to  one  who  is  interested,  have 
been  made  to  yield  their  share  in  supplying  the 
necessary  materials,  there  is  still  another  which 
any  school  may  employ.  It  is  the  system  of 
exchanging  materials.  This  exchange  may  be 
carried  on  informally,  the  child  getting  an  expe- 
rience in  the  beginnings  of  trade;  or  use  may 
be  made  of  such  bureaus  of  exchange  as  that 
of  the  American  Bureau  of  Geography  at  Winona, 
Minn. 

A  plan  adopted  this  year  by  Mrs.  Bessie  B. 
Rogers,  of  Elgin,  111.,  for  directing  the  children 
in  their  vacation  work  for  the  summer,  is  too  full 


1 88  THE  PLA  CE  OF  IND USTRIES 

of  promise  not  to  be  noticed  in  this  connection. 
The  plan  arose  partly  from  the  desire  to  help  the 
mothers  who  have  difficulty  in  rinding  employ- 
ment for  their  children  during  the  long  summer 
vacation,  and  partly  from  the  desire  to  have  the 
children  procure  materials  for  the  practical  work 
of  the  coming  year.  It  consisted  of  a  notebook 
made  by  the  children,  with  directions  at  the  top 
of  each  page  regarding  objects  worth  collecting 
and  the  method  of  preserving  them.  The  children 
who  had  these  notebooks  resolved  that  when  dur- 
ing the  summer  they  did  not  know  what  to  do, 
instead  of  asking  their  mothers,  they  would  go 
to  the  little  books  for  suggestions. 

Until  school  buildings  are  erected  which  em- 
body the  idea  of  industrial  education,  teachers 
must  be  willing  to  make  use  of  the  schoolroom 
and  yard,  the  cloak-room,  or  the  homes  of  the 
children  for  carrying  on  certain  phases  of  the 
work.  And  we  may  be  sure  that,  as  soon  as  the 
value  of  the  work  has  been  clearly  demonstrated, 
the  American  public  will  not  be  slow  in  res- 
ponding with  buildings  properly  equipped.  The 
hardships,  the  struggles,  the  aspirations,  which 
are  beneath  the  pioneer  work  will  bear  fruit  in  a 
spirit  worthy  of  the  equipment  which  is  bound  to 
be  erected  by  the  generosity  of  the  public. 

Pictures  which  illustrate  various  phases  of  in- 
dustrial processes  and  modes  of  living  are  too 


IN  ELEMENTARY  EDUCA  TION         1 89 

valuable  to  be  neglected,  and,  in  this  day  of  cheap 
reproductions  and  well-illustrated  periodicals,  a 
large  collection  of  valuable  pictures  can  be  made 
by  any  child  who  is  disposed  to  save  what  he  can 
readily  find.  If  the  teacher  will  lead  in  this  work 
and  secure  the  co-operation  of  the  children  in 
collecting  and  arranging  the  pictures  in  suitable 
ways  for  ready  reference,  a  most  important  fea- 
ture of  the  school  equipment  will  be  secured. 
Especial  emphasis  should  be  placed  upon  the 
selection  of  pictures  which  illustrate  particular 
subjects  of  study.  For  instance,  when  studying 
the  colonial  history  of  New  England  the  children 
should  be  encouraged  to  collect  pictures  which 
illustrate  the  geographical  features,  typical  land- 
scapes, pioneer  houses,  furniture,  fireplaces,  cook- 
ing utensils,  farming  tools,  mills,  the  people  them- 
selves, their  modes  of  dress,  their  public  buildings, 
and  their  co-operative  industries. 

Pictures  found  which  are  valuable  for  reference 
and  yet  not  available  for  cutting,  mounting,  and 
filing,  may  be  catalogued  so  that,  when  the  topic 
which  they  illustrate  is  reached,  they  may  readily 
be  found  in  the  book  or  periodical  in  which  they 
occur.  Small  pictures  may  be  mounted  on  manila 
cards  and  filed  in  shoe  boxes,  or  they  may  be 
mounted  on  heavy  sheets  of  cardboard  or  in 
scrapbooks  made  of  paper  cambric.  The  larger 
pictures  should  be  mounted  on  cardboard. 


1 90  THE  PLACE  OF  INDUSTRIES 

Great  impetus  is  lent  to  industrial  work,  espe- 
cially in  the  earlier  stages,  if  such  products  as  can 
be  preserved  for  a  few  weeks  are  saved  and  ex- 
hibited some  afternoon  or  evening  when  the 
parents  are  invited  to  inspect  them.  Exhibits  to 
which  the  parents  and  friends  of  the  school  are 
invited  are  valuable  as  a  means  of  arousing  inter- 
est in  the  cause.  If  the  children  or  representa- 
tives chosen  by  classes  are  present  to  explain  the 
work  to  the  parents,  the  exhibit  will  be  of  far 
greater  value  than  if  the  children  are  not  there. 

When  such  an  exhibit  is  ended,  the  teacher 
may  be  at  a  loss  to  know  what  to  do  with  the 
articles  made.  Those  valuable  from  the  strictly 
utilitarian  view  readily  find  a  place.  Models  of 
houses,  furniture,  tools,  carts,  etc.,  which  are  in- 
valuable to  the  children  while  they  are  making 
them,  may  accumulate  in  such  numbers  as  to  be 
in  the  way.  These  must  be  disposed  of  from  time 
to  time.  In  schools  where  social  occupations  are 
already  an  important  feature  it  has  been  found 
that  the  children  are  so  eager  to  take  the  products 
of  their  workmanship  home  that  it  is  difficult  to 
keep  many  specimens  of  their  work  in  the  school- 
room. While  this  tendency  on  the  part  of  the 
children  is  a  good  sign,  it  would  be  well  also  to 
make  use  of  this  opportunity  to  cultivate  a  more 
social  spirit.  It  would  be  well  for  the  children 
and  the  teacher  to  decide  which  pieces  of  work 


IN  ELEMENTARY  ED UCA  TION         1 9 1 

are  most  representative  of  that  which  they  wish 
to  do,  and  to  save  such  pieces  in  some  place 
which  may  prove  to  be  the  nucleus  of  an  indus- 
trial museum.  A  shelf  in  the  schoolroom  may 
be  large  enough  for  some  time,  but  as  the  articles 
accumulate,  and  the  need  is  felt  for  room  to  ar- 
range them  in  ways  which  will  show  the  idea 
intended,  there  will  be  a  demand  for  more  room. 
If  no  vacant  room  can  be  found  in  the  building, 
it  may  be  that  some  friend  will  be  glad  to  offer 
the  use  of  a  room  for  such  a  purpose  until  a  suit- 
able room  can  be  found  in  the  school  building. 
If,  in  addition  to  the  specimens  of  the  children's 
work,  there  are  gradually  collected  real  imple- 
ments and  tools  formerly  used  in  industrial  proc- 
esses, the  collection  may  prove  to  be  of  interest, 
not  merely  to  the  children,  but  to  the  entire 
community.  The  industrial  museum  at  Hull 
House,  Chicago,  is  worthy  of  careful  study. 

There  are  few  places  at  present  which  cannot 
produce  such  articles  as  looms,  spinning-wheels, 
reels,  swifts,  and  hand-cards,  used  only  a  few 
years  ago  in  all  the  homes  of  this  country.  If 
to  this  collection  be  added  a  Dutch  oven,  a  bake- 
kettle,  and  other  articles  used  in  cooking  at  the 
open  fireplace,  and  if  candle-molds,  candle- 
sticks, lamps,  lanterns,  and  other  products  of 
pioneer  days  be  added,  it  will  be  easy  for  the 
teacher  to  give  the  children  an  adequate  concep- 


THE  PLACE  OF  INDUSTRIES 

tion  of  the  life  of  our  forefathers  during  the 
colonial  period.  Such  collections  can  be  made 
with  comparatively  little  trouble,  if  made  soon. 
But  if  the  matter  is  delayed,  the  simple  imple- 
ments which  help  to  tell  the  story  of  the  simple 
mode  of  life  a  few  generations  ago  will  be  difficult 
to  procure.  Such  collections  arranged  with  ref 
erence  (i)  to  giving  a  picture  of  the  life  of  a 
given  period,  and  (2)  to  giving  the  sequence  of 
activities  during  the  year,  or  within  a  process, 
will  prove  helpful  in  giving  related  conceptions 
of  the  life  of  a  few  generations  ago. 

Where  good  reference-books  are  not  available, 
teachers  can  learn  from  the  older  people  of  the 
community  much  of  the  life  during  pioneer  days 
By  enlisting  the  co-operation  of  the  children  in 
collecting  and  organizing  such  information,  it  can 
be  preserved  in  a  form  for  future  reference. 

SUGGESTIONS  FOR  INDUSTRIAL  ACTIVITIES  WHICH 
MAY  BE  INTRODUCED  IN  SCHOOLS  NOT  EQUIPPED 
FOR  MANUAL  TRAINING. 

Suppose  that  a  brief  sketch  of  the  situation  in 
England  which  caused  the  Pilgrims  to  migrate  first 
to  Holland  and  later  to  the  New  World  has  been 
presented,  and  that  the  children  have  followed 
the  narrative  to  the  point  where  the  "Mayflower" 
dropped  her  anchor  and  parties  of  men  went  to 
the  shore  to  choose  a  suitable  site  for  a  home. 


IN  ELEMENTARY  EDUCA  TION 


To  help  the  children  judge  intelligently  con- 
cerning the  merits  of  the  different  places  explored 
as  sites  for  the  colony  let  them  express  their 
ideas,  even  though  they  be  vague  at  first,  con- 
cerning what  the  people  will  have  to  do  in  their 
new  home.  Remembering  their  meager  equip- 
ment and  the  great  distance  which  separates 
them  from  the  mother-country,  the  children  can 
readily  see  that  the  colonists  must  rely  chiefly 
upon  their  own  efforts  in  supplying  food,  shelter, 
clothing,  and  the  other  means  of  maintaining 
community  life.  This  being  the  case,  they  can 
also  see  the  advantage  of  a  good  soil  for  farming, 
fresh-water  springs  and  running  brooks  for  sup- 
plying water,  an  abundance  of  wild  game  for 
hunting,  a  variety  of  fish  for  fishing,  forests  for 
furnishing  materials  for  building  purposes,  a  com- 
manding view  from  which  the  approach  of  an 
enemy  can  be  discovered,  a  place  easily  protected 
and  so  situated  as  to  have  the  advantage  of 
natural  water-ways  and  inland  trails,  and  a  harbor 
deep  enough  for  the  entrance  of  ships  from  across 
the  seas  as  well  as  smaller  boats  which  might  be 
used  in  a  coast  trade. 

Let  the  children  study  the  geography  of  Cape 
Cod  and  model  it,  together  with  the  adjacent 
mainland.  Then  the  distance  should  be  reckoned 
from  Cape  Cod  to  the  mainland,  so  that  the  chil- 
dren can  realize  the  time  it  would  take  to  make 


1 94  THE  PLA  CE  OF  IND  USTRIES 

the  trip  by  boat  or  on  foot.  In  this  way,  perhaps, 
the  children  may  be  able  to  realize  the  force  of 
Mr.  Doyle's  statement  in  English  Colonies  in 
America,  Vol.  I,  p.  50,  where  he  says  that  if  the 
Pilgrims  had  settled  on  Cape  Cod,  "on  the  point 
of  a  peninsula  separated  from  the  mainland  by  a 
long  narrow  strip  of  land  or  by  twenty  miles  of 
sea,  Plymouth  could  not  have  maintained,  as  it  did, 
a  regular  and  well-organized  system  of  exten- 
sion." 

When  it  is  evident  that  Cape  Cod  is  not  a 
favorable  place  for  a  settlement,  the  children  are 
ready  to  consider  the  reports  of  the  different  par- 
ties who  went  out  in  the  mended  shallop  in  search 
of  a  favorable  site.  They  will  now  be  ready  to 
understand  why  the  site  first  discovered  by  a  party 
led  by  Standish  on  land,  and  later  visited  in  the 
shallop  by  a  party  of  twenty-four  colonists,  the 
shipmaster,  and  ten  of  his  sailors,  was  rejected  on 
account  of  "the  insufficiency  of  the  harbor  for 
the  accommodation  of  large  vessels,  and  the  un- 
certainty as  to  a  supply  of  fresh  water."1 

As  the  children  consider  the  comparative 
advantages  of  the  two  sites  discovered  in  the 
final  expedition,  they  should,  as  they  consider 
each  point,  represent  it  on  their  sand-map  in 
order  to  keep  the  facts  in  relation  to  the  subject 

XJOHN  GORHAM  PALFREY,  A  Compendious  History  of  New 
England,  Vol.  I,  p.  63. 


IN  ELEMENTARY  ED UCA  TION         1 9 5 

under  discussion.  Let  the  children  search  books 
of  reference  for  all  the  information  they  can  get 
concerning  the  two  sites,  and  when  they  have 
gained  all  they  can  and  represented  it  on  their 
maps,  they  may  be  supplied  with  any  of  the  facts 
in  the  following  quotations  which  they  may  not 
have  succeeded  in  discovering: 

Monday  they  sounded  the  harbor  and  found  it  fit  for 
shipping,  and  marched  also  into  the  land  and  found  divers 
cornfields  and  little  running  brooks — a  place,  as  they  sup- 
posed fit  for  situation  ....  so  they  returned  to  their  ship 
again  with  this  news  to  the  rest  of  their  people,  which  did 
much  comfort  their  hearts.1 

The  hard  work  of  clearing  a  site  was  therefore  saved 
them,  which  was  a  matter  of  grave  consequence  at  this 
time  of  year.  On  one  side  was  a  running  brook  which 
they  found  to  be  excellent  water.  Good  timber  trees  for 
building  were  rather  far  off,  yet  even  this  was  better  than 
having  the  forest  too  near,  for  since  their  fight  with  the 
Indians  the  Pilgrims  felt  that  their  chief  safety  lay  in  their 
weapons,  and  it  was  better  to  have  the  woods,  in  which 
they  lurked  to  steal  upon  them,  as  far  off  as  possible." 

Two  sites  of  land  seemed  to  offer  themselves  as  suit- 
able; one  on  an  island  at  the  mouth  of  the  harbor,  the 
other  by  a  river  which  fell  into  the  middle  of  the  bay.  The 
security  promised  by  the  island  was  a  strong  argument  in 
its  favor,  but  the  want  of  spring  water  there  and  of  cleared 
ground,  finally  decided  the  settlers  in  favor  of  the  main- 

1  Quoted  by  PALFREY  in  A  Compendious  History  of  New 
England,  Vol.  I,  p.  64. 

•DRAKE,  The  Making  of  New  England,  p.  81. 


10,6  THE  PLACE  OF  INDUSTRIES 

land  ....  Two  arms  of  land,  separated  by  a  narrow 
opening,  ran  out,  the  northern  one  rather  more,  the 
southern  less,  than  a  mile  long  inclosing  a  harbor  of  about 
a  mile  in  width.  Among  the  recommendations  of  this  site 
was  the  proximity  of  much  cleared  corn  land,  and  of  a 
high  hill  commanding  a  view  over  the  whole  bay.1 

Having  determined  the  site  of  the  settlement 
and  having  represented  it  on  the  sand-map,  the 
next  important  problem  for  the  children  to  solve 
is  that  of  determining  what  the  Pilgrims  will  do 
in  making  the  beginnings  of  a  new  home  and  in 
finding  out  whether  the  plans  which  they  make 
for  them  were  the  ones  adopted  by  the  Pilgrims. 
After  a  brief  forecast  of  the  probable  events  of 
the  winter,  the  narrative  as  given  in  the  text- 
book should  be  studied,  and  supplemented  by 
such  available  references  as  furnish  data  which 
the  children  can  use. 

The  position  of  the  " Mayflower"  during  the 
winter,  as  it  was  anchored  a  mile  and  a  half  from 
shore,  may  be  shown  on  the  sand-map,  so  as  to 
help  the  children  realize  that  in  the  cold  and  stormy 
weather  of  December  and  January,  when  the 
Pilgrims  were  beginning  to  establish  themselves, 
their  situation  was  such  that  they  had  to  expose 
themselves  constantly  to  the  elements,  and  that 
such  exposure,  following  the  long  hard  voyage 
in  which  they  had  been  obliged  to  live  under 

1  DOYLE,  English  Colonies  in  America,  Vol.  I,  p.  51. 


IN  ELEMENTARY  EDUCA  TION         197 

conditions  which  were  unsanitary,  prepared  the 
way  for  the  sickness  which  cost  the  lives  of  half 
their  number.  Knowing  that  the  Pilgrims  had 
little  ammunition,  and  that  they  were  not  used 
to  hunting,  the  children  can  understand  why  they 
had  little  venison  and  wild  fowls  at  first;  and 
knowing  that  they  were  suffering  from  sickness 
the  children  can  understand  why  such  food 
supplies  as  were  left  in  the  " Mayflower"  after 
the  voyage,  supplemented  by  coarse  mussels, 
oysters,  clams,  ground-nuts,  and  acorns,  were  not 
what  they  needed.  The  corn  which  Standish 
found  in  the  Indian  granaries  should  be  noticed, 
as  well  as  the  forethought  of  the  Pilgrims  in 
saving  it  for  seed  instead  of  using  it  for  food. 

While  the  "Mayflower"  was  anchored  in  the 
harbor,  the  Pilgrims  were  busy  in  laying  out  the 
village  and  in  building  the  first  rude  structures 
which  were  to  be  their  new  homes.  The  repre- 
sentation of  this  work  in  the  sand-box,  in  the 
school-yard,  or  in  any  other  available  place  will 
be  found  to  secure  a  willing  and  an  eager 
study  of  books,  for  it  serves  to  place  books  where 
they  belong.  Instead  of  being  an  end  in  them- 
selves, they  now  find  their  place  as  a  means  to 
an  end. 

Let  the  children  represent  the  Pilgrims  as  they 
brought  their  cannon  to  shore  .and  hauled  them 
up  the  hill.  Let  them  lay  the  platform  on  the 


1 98  THE  PLACE  OF  INDUSTRIES 

hill,  and  place  models  of  the  cannon  upon  it  in 
such  a  way  as  to  command  the  different  ap- 
proaches to  the  site  of  the  village. 

As  the  children  plan  the  best  way  of  laying 
out  the  village  and  the  easiest  way  the  Pilgrims 
can  provide  a  shelter,  tell  them  that  in  order  to 
save  work  the  Pilgrims  divided  themselves  into 
nineteen  families,  and  that  each  family  was  to  be 
given  a  lot  for  a  house  and  garden.  These  small 
lots,  some  of  which  were  two  and  three-fourths 
yards  in  breadth  by  sixteen  and  one-half  yards 
in  length,  were  thought  to  be  large  enough  for 
the  time  ;  and  since  they  had  to  be  surrounded 
by  a  heavy  stockade,  it  seemed  best  to  make 
them  no  larger. 

The  lots  were  laid  off  on  opposite  sides  of  "a 
broad  street,  about  a  cannon  shot  of  eight  hun- 
dred yards  long,  leading  down  the  hill  with  a 
street  crossing  it  in  the  middle,  northward  to  the 
rivulet"  and  southward  to  cleared  corn-fields. 
This  plan  of  a  village  was  one  which  the  Pilgrims 
had  been  accustomed  to  in  Holland;  and  since 
the  double  row  of  houses  to  be  erected  promised 
to  be  a  good  means  of  protection  from  enemies, 
it  seemed  well  adapted  to  their  needs  in  the  New 
World. 

Although  the  streets  were  laid  out  and  the  lots 
measured  as  early  as  December  28,  little  pro- 
gress was  made  on  the  private  dwellings  which 


IN  ELEMENTARY  ED UCA  TION          1 99 

were  to  be  built  by  individuals.  The  most  press- 
ing need  was  that  of  erecting  a  common  shelter. 
In  discussing  the  materials  out  of  which  the  com- 
mon house  was  built,  the  children  should  be 
helped  to  see  why  it  was  made  of  logs  and  not  of 
sawn  lumber,  stone,  or  brick;  why  it  was  covered 
with  thatch  instead  of  shingles  or  tile;  why  the 
chinks  between  the  timbers  were  plastered  with 
clay  or  with  a  mortar  made  of  clam-shells,  instead 
of  being  covered  with  clapboards.  Knowing 
that  the  timber  is  some  distance  from  the  site 
of  the  village,  that  the  trees  have  to  be  felled, 
trimmed,  hewed,  and  hauled  to  the  site  without 
the  aid  of  horses  or  oxen  and  with  only  the  sim- 
plest tools,  and  that  the  weather  was  so  cold  and 
stormy  that  the  men  could  not  work  more  than 
half  the  time,  the  children  can  understand  why 
the  work  proceeded  slowly. 

The  common  house  was  twenty  feet  square 
and  "made  of  hewn  logs,  pointed  with  mortar  or 
mud  in  the  chinks  between  the  timbers,  and 
thatched."  By  January  9  it  lacked  only  a  roof 
to  complete  it,  and  the  men  worked  so  busily 
during  the  next  four  days  that  the  roof  was  half 
thatched. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  follow  the  narrative  of 
life  during  the  first  winter  any  farther  in  this 
place.  Enough  has  been  given  to  suggest  several 
kinds  of  work  which  the  children  can  do  in  order 


200  THE  PLACE  OF  INDUSTRIES 

to  make  the  life  real.  The  representation  of  the 
village  streets,  the  plots  assigned  to  individual 
families,  the  location  of  the  common  house  and 
a  small  house  near  it  which  seems  to  be  the  only 
small  house  completed  that  winter,  and  the  be- 
ginnings of  several  houses,  will  serve  to  give  a 
view  of  the  village  as  a  whole,  while  the  repre- 
sentation of  a  larger  model  of  the  common  house 
than  the  scale  adopted  for  the  village  permits, 
gives  a  better  idea  of  the  method  of  building  as 
well  as  a  better  idea  of  the  house  itself.  If,  in 
addition  to  this  work,  the  children  be  encouraged 
to  collect  pictures  which  will  illustrate  different 
phases  of  the  life  at  this  time,  and  if  they  draw  or 
paint  pictures  illustrating  typical  activities  of  the 
Pilgrims,  there  will  be  no  lack  of  interest  in 
the  work. 

The  following  subjects  are  suggestive  of  work 
which  the  children  may  do  in  drawing  and  paint- 
ing to  help  make  the  life  of  the  first  winter  more 
real: 

Mending  the  shallop. 

Repairing  the  tools. 

Standish  leading  a  party  of  men  in  search  of  a  site. 

Cutting  eelgrass  and  cattails  for  thatch. 

Lost  in  the  woods. 

The  first  washday  in  New  England. 

Laying  out  the  village. 

Felling  trees  for  the  common  house. 

Hauling  logs  for  the  common  house. 


IN  ELEMENTARY  ED UCA  TION          20 1 

Mixing  mortar  for  the  common  house. 
Building  the  common  house. 
Stormy  gusts  of  February. 
Life  in  the  "Mayflower." 
Hunting  during  the  first  winter. 
Fishing  during  the  first  winter. 
Searching  for  ground-nuts. 
Digging  clams. 

Selections  from  the  above  list  may  also  be 
used  for  compositions.  The  children  may  make 
such  lists  for  themselves  and,  if  allowed  to  do  so, 
can  help  the  teacher  in  furnishing  valuable  ideas 
for  the  recitation  period. 

In  studying  the  life  of  the  colonists  the  first 
summer,  the  map  or  maps  showing  the  site  and 
the  village  as  it  looked  in  the  winter  will  make  a 
good  starting-point.  To  this  should  now  be  added 
such  features  as  are  typical  of  the  life  in  Ply- 
mouth the  first  summer.  The  following  subjects 
lend  themselves  to  sand-modeling,  constructive 
work,  dramatization,  painting,  drawing,  and  lan- 
guage : 

Planting  the  first  crops. 

Hunting  for  wild  foods. 

The  erection  of  the  public  building,  which  was  a  church, 
a  fort,  and  a  storehouse,  all  in  one.  (This  building  was 
placed  near  the  top  of  the  hill  which  commanded  a  view  of 
the  surrounding  country.  It  occupied  the  spot  where  the 
platform  with  the  cannon  stood  during  the  first  winter.) 

The  erection  of  seven  private  dwellings,  with  a  garden 
made  just  back  of  each. 


202  THE  PLACE  OF  INDUSTRIES 

Building  the  heavy  stockade  as  a  means  of  protection. 

Guarding  the  three  gates  in  the  stockade. 

Preparing  the  first  cargo  to  be  sent  to  England. 
(This  cargo  consisted  of  beaver-skins,  wainscoting,  and 
sassafras,  and  was  the  first  payment  to  the  merchants  who 
furnished  the  money  for  the  voyage  of  the  Pilgrims  to 
America.) 

The  arrival  of  the  "Fortune"  with  fifty  new  settlers. 
Relations  with  the  Indians. 

In  the  case  of  children  who  have  not  had 
experience  on  a  farm  or  in  working  a  gar- 
den, the  actual  cultivation  of  a  garden  is  almost 
essential  to  an  understanding  of  the  farm  life  of 
the  Pilgrims.  Whether  an  actual  garden  be  used 
or  not,  the  representation  on  the  sand-map  of  the 
cleared  corn-fields  which  the  Pilgrims  first  used, 
and  the  twenty -six  acres  which  they  succeeded  in 
clearing  during  that  summer  will  be  valuable  in 
picturing  the  life  of  the  little  community.  Con- 
cerning their  first  work  in  farming,  Mr.  Palfrey 
writes : 

The  settlers  had  no  working-cattle.  In  early  spring 
they  opened  the  ground  near  their  dwellings  with  the 
spade,  and  prepared  their  rude  gardens.  They  sowed  six 
acres  with  barley  and  peas.  Their  good  fortune  in  the 
winter  at  the  subterranean  storehouses  had  given  them  ten 
bushels  of  Indian  corn  for  seed.  This  sufficed  for  the  cul- 
tivation of  twenty  acres,  Squanto  instructing  them  how  to 
plant  and  hill  it,  and  to  manure  it  with  fish.1 

*See  Compendious  History  of  New  England,  Vol.  I,  p.  70. 


IN  ELEMENTARY  EDUCA  TION         203 

No  doubt  the  Pilgrims  made  a  mistake  by  be- 
ginning to  work  in  their  gardens  March  7.  They 
were  not  used  to  the  cold  New  England  climate, 
and  they  were  not  expecting  so  many  cold  days 
as  they  had.  The  early  planting  may  account 
for  the  fact  that  the  "peas  failed"  and  the  "bar- 
ley was  indifferent  good."  But  the  Pilgrims  suc- 
ceeded in  harvesting  a  good  crop  of  corn,  for 
which  they  were  duly  thankful. 

If  a  shock  of  corn  can  be  brought  to  the 
school,  it  can  be  so  used  as  to  be  very  helpful. 
A  few  stalks  of  corn  may  be  used  so  as  to  deco- 
rate the  schoolroom ;  but  the  main  purpose  of 
bringing  it  to  school  is  to  provide  materials  for 
practical  lessons.  The  children  can  husk  the 
corn,  leaving  the  fine  white  husks  on  the  better 
ears  so  as  to  braid  them  and  hang  them  up  for 
seed ;  they  can  save  the  white  husks  to  illustrate 
ways  the  colonists  used  them  for  braiding  mats, 
and,  at  a  later  period,  for  making  collars  for  the 
horses ;  or  they  may  use  them  for  making  baskets 
which  they  may  wish  to  use  themselves. 

The  drying,  shelling,  and  winnowing  of  the 
corn  may  be  done  out  of  school  hours,  if  it  seems 
best  to  the  teacher.  The  cobs  should  be  saved, 
and  part  of  them  may  be  given  to  the  little  chil- 
dren to  use  as  substitutes  for  building-blocks. 
Others  may  be  used  in  the  representation  of 
phases  of  life  in  colonial  homes. 


204  THE  PLACE  OF  INDUSTRIES 

The  problem  of  the  children  in  grinding  the 
shelled  corn  is,  in  many  respects,  like  that  of  the 
first  colonists,  and  the  methods  they  adopt  will 
be  much  the  same,  not  because  the  children  are 
re-living  that  period,  but  because  the  problem  in 
the  two  cases  is  similar,  as  well  as  the  means 
available  for  its  solution.  It  would  be  interesting 
to  find  out  how  many  ways  the  children  can  dis- 
cover for  grinding  the  corn  by  making  use  of  the 
simple  implements  they  can  readily  find.  When 
the  children  begin  to  compare  the  different 
methods  they  have  used  in  grinding,  their  attention 
will  doubtless  first  be  given  to  differences  in  the 
means  employed.  But  as  they  proceed  in  the 
comparison,  someone  will  be  likely  to  notice  that, 
in  spite  of  the  differences,  in  every  case  the  meal 
was  manufactured  either  by  pounding  or  by  rubbing 
the  corn.  A  mortar  and  pestle  made  by  the 
children  will  serve  to  illustrate  the  most  typical 
method  of  grinding  by  pounding  and  an  old  coffee 
or  spice  mill  which  they  may  be  fortunate  enough 
to  find  will  furnish  opportunities  for  studying 
methods  of  grinding  by  rubbing.  After  using 
such  a  mill  by  hand,  the  children  may  be  inter- 
ested in  contriving  the  apparatus  necessary  in 
order  to  run  the  mill  by  animal,  wind,  or  water 
power.  In  buildings  supplied  with  water-pipes, 
the  little  stream  of  water  from  the  faucet  may 
be  used  as  a  substitute  for  the  river,  and  where 


IN  ELEMENTARY  EDUCA  TION         20$ 

such  means  are  not  available,  the  ingenuity  of 
the  children,  if  it  is  free  to  express  itself,  will 
not  be  slow  in  devising  equally  satisfactory  sub- 
stitutes. 

Such  work  opens  up  the  whole  question  of 
colonial  milling,  and  while  engaged  in  such  work 
the  children  will  be  eager  to  search  books  to 
find  out  all  they  can  on  the  subject.  This  is 
the  time  when  they  will  appreciate  such  facts 
as  those  which  can  be  gleaned  from  Weeden's 
Economic  and  Social  History  of  New  England 
and  from  Bishop's  History  of  American  Manu- 
factures. 

In  representing  the  new  buildings  which  were 
erected  during  the  first  summer,  the  children  will 
be  glad  to  be  able  to  name  them.  Just  above 
the  common  house,  which  is  near  the  shore  on 
the  south  side  of  the  street  and  opposite  the 
cleared  corn-field  which  has  since  been  known  as 
Burial  Hill,  were  the  houses  of  Mr.  Brown,  Mr. 
Gardiner,  who  became  a  seaman,  and  Mr.  Brewster, 
the  minister,  whose  house  was  on  the  southeast 
corner  of  the  intersecting  streets.  Directly  op- 
posite the  houses  of  Mr.  Brewster  and  Mr.  Gar- 
diner, on  the  north  side  of  the  street,  were  those 
of  Mr.  Hopkins,  a  man  from  London,  and  Mr. 
Howland.  Diagonally  across  from  the  house  of 
the  minister  was  that  of  Governor  Bradford.  In 
the  large  space  where  the  streets  intersected  four 


206  THE  PLACE  OF  INDUSTRIES 

cannon  were  placed  so  as  to  guard  each  part  of 
the  two  streets.  The  house  adjoining  that  of 
Governor  Bradford  belonged  to  Miles  Standish 
and  John  Alden,  this  house  being  the  farthest  up 
the  hill  on  the  north  side  of  the  street,  and  near- 
est the  public  house  on  the  hill  which  served  as 
a  church,  a  fort,  and  a  common  storehouse.  On 
the  south  side  of  the  street,  and  almost  opposite 
the  church,  was  the  house  of  Mr.  Winslow.  With 
these  data  the  children  can  reconstruct  a  map  of 
Plymouth  as  it  was  in  1621,  and  in  so  doing  get  a 
far  better  conception  of  the  place  than  they  could 
by  merely  looking  at  the  most  elaborate  map 
that  could  be  made.  When  these  houses  are  rep- 
resented in  a  simple  way,  and  when  the  whole 
model  is  surrounded  by  a  representation  of  a 
heavy  stockade  with  gates  at  the  northern,  south- 
ern, and  western  approaches,  the  relations  of 
the  various  parts  of  the  village  will  be  clearly 
expressed. 

As  data  for  the  first  dwellings  of  the  people, 
Mr.  Weeden's  description  in  his  Economic  and 
Social  History  of  New  England,  p.  214,  may  be 
used.  The  house  of  the  first  period  was 

a  plain,  rectangular  house  of  one  story,  with  two  rooms,  a 
kitchen  or  a  living-room,  and  a  family  bedroom,  with  one 
or  more  beds  and  a  trundle-bed.  There  were  rude  sleeping- 
places  in  the  garret,  under  thatched  roofs,  whither  those 
beyond  maternal  care,  and  active  enough,  climbed  by  a 
ladder. 


IN  ELEMENTARY  EDUCA  TION         20? 

The  doors  to  these  houses  hung  on  long, 
heavy,  wooden  hinges,  or  on  hinges  made  of 
thick  pieces  of  leather.  The  oiled-paper  windows 
were  latticed  for  protection.  The  chimneys  and 
fireplaces  were  made  of  sticks  and  plastered  with 
clay.  The  few  iron  cooking  utensils  brought 
from  England,  the  plain  chest  which  served  as 
trunk,  table,  and  chair,  were  supplemented  by 
such  hand-made  utensils  and  furniture  as  the 
busy  people  found  time  to  make.  In  picturing 
the  life  of  the  Pilgrims  during  the  first  few  years, 
the  children  must  remember  that  they  had  many 
things  to  think  about  besides  their  own  comfort. 
The  company  of  merchants  in  England  was  com- 
plaining because  the  "Mayflower"  returned  with- 
out a  cargo,  and  could  not  understand  that, 
during  the  hardships  of  the  first  winter,  the  Pil- 
grims had  no  time  to  procure  materials  to  send 
to  them.  In  representing  the  work  of  the  first 
summer  the  children  may  make  drawings  of 
John  Alden  as  he  supervised  the  men  cutting 
timber  and  making  clapboards  to  send  to  Eng- 
land ;  they  may  also  represent  Dr.  Fuller  as 
taking  charge  of  the  work  of  stripping  off  sassa- 
fras from  the  trees,  and  others  buying  furs 
from  the  Indians.  Pictures  of  loading  the  cargo, 
the  departure  of  the  "Fortune,"  the  plunder  of 
the  cargo  by  a  French  cruiser,  the  dissatisfac- 
tion of  the  merchants  in  England,  even  though 


208  THE  PLACE  OF  INDUSTRIES 

executed  crudely,  will  serve  to  emphasize  impor- 
tant links  in  the  chain  of  events  which  makes 
history. 

Since  the  New  England  colonies  depended 
chiefly  upon  agriculture,  the  fisheries,  and  trade, 
up  to  1640  when  the  civil  war  in  England  cut  off 
emigration  and  trade,  and  forced  the  colonies  to 
develop  manufactures  and  the  homespun  indus- 
tries, it  would  be  well  for  the  teacher  in  planning 
her  work  to  keep  these  three  industries  in  mind, 
and  to  shape  the  practical  work  of  the  children 
so  as  to  make  it  give  insight  into  the  ways  in 
which  these  industries  helped  to  mold  New 
England  life. 

In  the  study  of  New  England  agriculture  the 
successive  steps  by  means  of  which  the  colonists 
passed  from  common  fields  to  individual  annual 
holdings  assigned  by  lot,  and  later  to  permanent 
holdings  of  farm  lands,  while  the  meadow  lands 
were  still  held  in  common,  may  be  shown  in  a  suc- 
cession of  maps  showing  the  division  of  the  fields. 

Concerning  the  allotment  of  land  in  the  spring 
of  1623,  Mr.  Palfrey  writes: 

To  each  family,  in  place  of  the  partnership  labor 
hitherto  maintained,  had  been  assigned  in  the  spring  the 
cultivation  and  usufruct  of  a  separate  parcel  of  land,  the 
unmarried  persons  being  each  attached  to  some  family,  and 
a  provision  being  added  that  each  cultivator  should  at  har- 
vest-time bring  in  a  competent  portion  for  the  maintenance 
of  public  officers,  fishermen,  etc.  This  method  made  all 


O    u 

§    I 


X 

8* 

H    2 


Q    a 


1 

o 

Q 

8 


IN  ELEMENTARY  ED UCA  TION         20g 

hands  very  industrious,  so  as  much  more  corn  was  planted 
than  otherwise  would  have  been,  and  it  gave  far  better 
content.  The  women  now  went  willingly  into  the  field,  and 
took  their  little  ones  with  them  to  set  corn  whom  to  have 
compelled  would  have  been  thought  great  tyranny  and 
oppression.1 

Perhaps  the  change  made  in  the  allotment  of 
land  in  1627,  the  year  in  which  the  Pilgrims 
dissolved  partnership  with  the  merchants  in  Eng- 
land, is  the  next  one  which  it  is  worth  the  while 
for  the  children  to  take  into  account. 

The  land  along  the  banks  of  the  stream  to  the  south  of 
the  town  was  divided,  by  officers  specially  appointed,  into 
patches  of  twenty  acres  each,  with  a  river  frontage  of  five 
acres.  These  were  then  assigned  by  lot  to  the  different 
householders.  At  the  same  time  the  system  of  separate 
holdings  did  not  at  once  supersede  that  of  common  tillage. 
Since  it  was  beyond  the  power  of  a  single  householder  to 
till  twenty  acres  of  ground  at  once,  only  those  lots  which 
lay  near  the  town  were  to  be  taken  in  hand.  Each  land- 
owner whose  plot  was  brought  under  cultivation  was  to 
associate  with  him  a  certain  number  of  his  neighbors 
chosen  by  himself,  or,  in  default,  assigned  to  him  by  the 
governor  and  assistants.  This  arrangement  was  to  last 
four  years.  The  owner  was  to  reserve  for  his  own  use 
twice  as  much  land  as  he  could  reclaim  during  that  time. 
Meanwhile  his  associates  were  to  live  on  the  rest,  and  at 
the  end  of  the  term  to  proceed  to  their  own  holdings.  The 
owner  of  each  plot  was  to  have  full  rights  over  all  timber 
which  grew  upon  it,  but  he  was  to  enjoy  no  monopoly  of 

1  See  Compendious  History  of  New  England,  Vol.  I,  pp.  8l,  82. 


2 1 0  THE  PLA  CE  OF  IND  USTRIES 

fowling  or  fishing  and  he  was  bound  to  leave  a  footpath 
through  his  ground.1 

The  method  of  farming  before  the  use  of 
cattle  and  horses  can  be  best  appreciated  by  the 
children  if  they  are  helping  take  care  of  a  school 
garden.  If  to  this  experience  they  add  the 
making  of  drawings  of  such  simple  farming 
implements  as  those  brought  by  the  Pilgrims  from 
England,  and  if  they  make  models  of  the  simple, 
natural  tools  which  the  people  were  obliged  to 
make,  the  earliest  period  of  farm  life  in  New 
England  ought  to  be  fairly  well  understood. 

We  are  told  that  each  planter  migrating  to 
New  England  was  advised  to  take  one  broad  hoe, 
one  narrow  hoe,  one  broad  ax,  one  felling  ax,  one 
steel  hand-saw,  one  whip-saw,  one  hammer,  one 
shovel,  one  spade,  two  augers,  four  chisels,  two 
piercers,  one  gimlet,  and  one  hatchet.2  We  may 
be  very  sure  that  the  Pilgrims  were  not  so  well 
equipped  with  tools  as  this,  but  they  undoubtedly 
had  iron  spades  for  digging  up  the  soil,  hoes  for 
cultivating  the  crops,  and  sickles  for  reaping 
For  threshing  they  could  easily  make  a  flail  out 
of  two  straight  saplings  and  a  short  piece  of 
leather.  We  may  well  believe  that  the  Pilgrims 
had  enough  hoes  to  use;  for  we  read  of  their 
trading  them  to  the  Indians,  who  gladly  substi- 

1  DOYLE,  English  Colonies  in  America,  Vol.  I,  p.  63. 

"See  DANIEL  WAIT  HOWE,  The  Puritan  Republic •,  p.  132. 


IN  ELEMENTARY  EDUCA  TION         211 

tuted  the  more  efficient  tool  for  the  clam-shell 
hoe  the  Indian  women  had  used.  An  important 
point  to  emphasize  regarding  the  tools  is  that 
those  made  at  first  were  chiefly  of  wood,  and  that 
natural  forms,  which  required  the  least  amount  of 
labor  to  shape,  were  sought  with  the  greatest 
care. 

When  the  mower  wanted  a  new  snathe  or  snead,  as  he 
called  it,  for  his  scythe,  he  found  in  the  woods  a  deformed 
sapling  that  had  grown  under  a  log  or  twisted  around  a 
rock  in  a  double  bend,  which  made  it  the  exact  shape  he 
desired.  He  then  whittled  it,  dressed  it  with  a  draw- 
shave,  fastened  the  nebs  with  a  neb-wedge,  hung  it  with  an 
iron  ring,  and  was  ready  for  the  mowing-field.1 

With  the  introduction  of  cattle  and  horses  the 
colonial  farmers  were  able  to  make  much  more 
rapid  progress.  The  first  cattle,  a  bull  and  three 
heifers,  were  introduced  in  1624.  In  1625  there 
were  nine  cattle,  and  in  1627  there  were  twelve 
cows  in  Plymouth.  Not  until  the  first  ten  years 
of  pioneer  life  had  passed  did  the  Pilgrims  have 
many  cattle.  Their  neighbors,  the  Massachusetts 
Bay  colonists,  had  cattle  from  the  first,  and  so 
were  able  to  make  use  of  them  in  their  farm  labor 
as  well  as  for  dairy  purposes. 

As  the  children  try  to  represent  the  life  of  the 
colonists  between  1630  and  1640,  when  they 
have  plenty  of  cattle  and  are  entering  upon  a 

1  ALICE  MORSE  EARLE,  Home  Life  in  Colonial  Days,  p.  308. 


2 1 2  THE  PL  A  CE  OF  IND  USTRIES 

period  of  prosperity,  let  them  represent  on  their 
maps  the  meadows  and  marshes  where  the  native 
grasses  grew,  without  which  the  cattle  could  not 
have  lived.  Mr.  Weeden,  in  writing  of  the  best 
soils  where  the  timber  and  brushwood  had  been 
kept  cleared  by  the  fires  kindled  by  the  Indians, 
states:  "The  grass  was  close-set,  waist-high, 
and  in  some  places  as  high  as  the  shoulders." 
Without  this  grass  the  cattle  could  not  have 
been  reared,  and  without  cattle  the  colonists 
would  scarcely  have  been  able  to  subdue  the 
wilderness. 

Let  the  children  picture  the  cowherd  as  he 
started  on  his  day's  work  an  hour  after  sunrise 
each  morning  blowing  his  horn  as  a  signal  to  the 
villagers  to  be  ready  with  their  herds.  Let  them 
follow  him  in  imagination  through  the  day  until, 
as  the  sun  gets  low  in  the  west,  he  drives  the 
long  line  of  cattle  toward  the  village,  again  wind- 
ing his  horn  as  a  signal  to  the  villagers  to  let 
down  their  bars  and  receive  their  respective  herds. 
Milking  the  cows,  straining  the  milk,  skimming 
the  cream,  churning,  gathering  and  working  the 
butter,  may  be  described  as  a  composition  exercise 
by  children  who  have  the  experience.  In  the 
case  of  those  not  familiar  with  such  work  it  is 
worth  while  to  help  the  children  get  the  experience 
by  doing  some  of  this  work  at  school.  This 
may  be  supplemented  by  pictures,  descriptions. 


IN  ELEMENTARY  ED UCA  TION         2 1 3 

and  illustrative  constructive  work  until  the  chil- 
dren have  had  sufficient  opportunity  to  grasp  the 
subject. 

The  presence  of  cattle  means  not  merely  their 
assistance  in  farming,  but  it  means  that  the  colo- 
nists must  make  plows  to  take  the  place  of  their 
spades,  "horse-hoes"  to  supplement  hand-hoes, 
carts  and  racks  upon  which  to  load  the  farm 
produce,  ox-yokes  and  other  forms  of  harness  in 
order  to  attach  the  animals  to  the  machinery 
which  they  are  to  work.  Stables  and  barns,  too, 
must  be  made  to  shelter  the  animals,  and  corn 
and  hay  provided  for  their  food.  All  these  points 
may  be  illustrated  in  graphic  ways  which  will 
form  a  variety  of  useful  occupations. 

When  the  study  of  the  changes  wrought  in 
farming  by  the  introduction  of  cattle  has  been 
finished,  it  may  be  well  to  notice  that  the  increased 
demand  for  agricultural  implements  creates  in 
turn  a  demand  for  iron  works.  At  the  same  time, 
tanneries  are  erected  to  manufacture  leather  for 
harnesses,  straps,  and  sundry  other  purposes,  and 
mills  to  grind  grain  as  well  as  to  manufacture 
lumber  for  the  buildings  and  implements  needed 
on  the  farms.  These  facts  should  be  noticed  at 
this  time,  if  for  no  other  purpose  than  that  of 
turning  the  child's  attention  to  certain  factors 
which  were  dominant  in  the  following  period, 
beginning  about  1640. 


2 1 4  THE  PL  A  CE  OF  IND  US  TRIES 

Although  the  settlement  of  Massachusetts  Bay 
Colony  is  of  much  more  significance  in  the 
development  of  New  England  than  that  of  Ply- 
mouth, if  the  children  have  reconstructed  the  life 
at  Plymouth  by  means  of  sand-modeling,  con- 
structive work,  drawings,  paintings,  and  drama- 
tization, they  will  be  prepared  to  understand  the 
life  of  the  later  and  more  powerful  colony  with- 
out taking  time  for  so  many  practical  activities 
as  have  been  suggested  in  connection  with  the 
study  of  Plymouth.  It  will  be  well,  however, 
after  a  brief  account  of  the  first  events  in  the 
history  of  that  colony  to  model  a  typical  town- 
ship, showing  the  location  of  the  streets,  public 
buildings,  homes,  farms,  pasture,  and  woodlands. 

The  following  quotations  may  be  helpful  as  a 
guide  in  the  children's  representative  work : 

When  settlers  came  over  from  England  to  Mass- 
achusetts, they  usually  came  in  congregations  led  by  their 
ministers,  and  settled  together  in  parishes,  or  townships. 
In  this  way  the  soil  of  Massachusetts  gradually  became 
covered  with  little  self-governing  republics,  called  town- 
ships, or  towns,  each  about  six  or  eight  miles  square,  with 
a  village  street  for  its  center,  surrounded  by  spreading 
farms.  The  church  in  the  village  was  used,  not  only  for 
religious  services,  but  for  transacting  public  business,  and 
was  always  called  the  meeting-house.  At  a  later  time  it 
was  used  only  as  a  church,  and  another  building,  called 
the  townhouse,  or  townhall,  was  used  for  public  business. 
The  meeting-house  and  townhouse  usually  stood  beside  a 
large  open  grazing-ground,  or  common,  and  in  early  times 


IN  ELEMENTARY  ED UCA  TION         2 1 5 

this  village  center  was  apt  to  be  placed  upon  high  ground 
in  order  that  the  approach  of  hostile  parties  of  red  men 
might  more  easily  be  detected.  On  or  near  the  common 
there  was  in  many  villages  a  fort,  or  blockhouse,  built  of 
heavy  timbers,  where  the  people  could  take  refuge  in  case 
of  sudden  attack.1 

Land  was  alloted  by  a  system  like  that  adopted  by  the 
Virginia  Colony.  Each  shareholder  was  to  have  two 
hundred  acres  for  every  fifty  pounds  that  he  had  invested. 
If  he  settled  in  the  colony,  he  was  to  have  fifty  more  for 
himself  and  fifty  for  each  member  of  his  family.  Emigrants 
who  were  not  shareholders  were  to  have  an  allotment  of  fifty 
acres,  with  the  same  quantity  for  each  servant  exported. 
The  governor  and  council  had  also  power  to  grant  a  further 
quantity  to  emigrants  according  to  their  charge  and 
quality.2 

The  constructive  work  illustrative  of  New 
England  life  will  not  be  complete  without  a  rep- 
resentation of  the  meeting-house.  The  children, 
doubtless,  will  be  interested  to  learn  that  no 
provision  was  made  for  heating  it  for  one  hundred 
and  fifty  years,  and  that  it  was  not  lighted  until  a 
late  period,  when  it  was  used  for  singing  school. 

The  meeting-house  of  the  first  period  was  the  central  build- 
ing of  the  Puritan  town.  The  village  grew  up  around  it, 
and  the  country  roads  were  laid  out  with  reference  to  it. 
The  first  meeting-house  was  built  of  logs  and  thatched. 
The  pulpit  was  a  simple  desk.  There  were  rough  benches 
on  either  side  of  the  central  aisle.  The  men  sat  on  one 
side  and  the  women  on  the  other.  Sometimes  the  meeting- 

1  FISKE,  United  Slates  History,  pp.  94,  95. 

*  DOYLE,  English  Colonies  in  America,  Vol.  I,  p.  92. 


2 1 6  THE  PLA  CE  OF  IND  US  TRIES 

house  was  surrounded  by  palisades,  with  a  sentinel  at  the 
gate,  and  the  people  used  it  as  a  place  of  deposit  for 
powder,  and  also  for  their  most  valuable  possessions.1 

The  home  of  the  minister  was  a  "small  log 
cabin,  with  the  old  well-sweep  outside,  and  with 
cultivated  fields  about  it." 

The  meeting-house  of  the  second  period  was 
a  barn-like  structure,  nearly  square,  with  a  roof 
the  form  of  a  pyramid,  from  the  center  of  which 
rose  a  steeple.  A  bell  was  suspended  from  the 
steeple  and  used  in  place  of  the  drum  or  conch 
shell  in  calling  the  people  to  church. 

Although  land  was  alloted  by  the  same 
methods  in  New  England  and  in  Virginia  differ- 
ences in  soil  and  climate  were  such  as  to  produce 
very  different  modes  of  agriculture.  The  failure 
of  attempts  in  New  England  to  introduce  servile 
labor  in  agriculture  may  be  noticed,  for  they  serve 
to  bring  out  essential  points  of  difference  in  the 
two  sections.  If  the  children  have  already 
studied  colonial  life  in  Virginia,  they  will  be  ready 
to  make  the  points  of  contrast ;  but  if  not,  time 
may  be  saved  by  taking  time  to  bring  out  these 
points  in  a  graphic  way.  The  following  quota- 
tions show  important  differences  in  social  and 
economic  conditions  in  the  two  sections,  and 
these  differences  may  readily  be  understood  by 
the  children  if  they  are  given  the  opportunity  to 

*  BYINGTON,  Puritans  in  England  and  New  England,  p.  1 10. 


I 


IN  ELEMENTARY  ED UCA  TION         2 1 7 

represent   these  differences  by  illustrative  con- 
structive work : 

A  great  plantation,  with  its  galleried  manor-house,  its 
row  of  negro  quarters,  and  group  of  barns  and  shops,  was 
in  a  large  measure  a  self-sustaining  community.  The 
planter  needed  little  that  could  be  obtained  elsewhere  in  his 
own  colony  or  in  the  South,  and  conducted  his  commercial 
operations  direct  with  England,  the  West  Indies,  and  the 
northern  colonies.  Vessels  came  to  his  landing,  bringing 
the  supplies  which  he  had  ordered  of  his  correspondents, 
and  loading  for  the  return  trip  with  such  material  as  he 
had  for  export.  Under  this  independent  system  whereby 
the  rural  magnate  was  his  own  merchant,  and  negro  slaves 
his  only  workmen,  neither  general  trade  nor  industries 
could  flourish.  Manufactures  of  every  sort  —  even  tables, 
chairs,  stools,  wooden  bowls,  and  birchen  brooms — were, 
along  with  many  necessaries  of  life,  imported  from  Eng- 
land and  neighboring  colonies.  There  were  a  few  negroes 
on  every  plantation  who  were  trained  to  the  mechanic 
arts  ;  and  a  small  number  of  white  craftsmen  found  work 
in  traveling  around  the  country,  doing  such  jobs  as  were 
beyond  the  capacity  of  the  slaves.1 

Small  villages,  neighborhood  centers  of  the  several 
townships,  abounded  everywhere.  The  houses  of  the 
minister  and  school-teacher,  with  little  shops  of  tradesmen 
and  artisans,  formed  the  nucleus  around  which  the  farm- 
houses were  grouped  with  more  or  less  density.  The 
village  streets,  overhung  with  arching  elms,  were  kept  in 
tolerable  order  by  the  "  hog-reeves,"  "  fence-viewers,"  and 
other  town  officials.  The  quaint,  roomy,  gambrel-roofed 
houses  were  scroupulously  plain  and  clean,  and  presided 
over  by  model  housewifes.* 

1  THWAITES,  The  Colonies,  pp.  102,  103.       a  Ibid.,  p.  186. 


2 1 8  THE  PLA CE  OF  INDUSTRIES 

After  representing  the  above,  the  children  will 
be  better  able  to  understand  the  following  differ- 
ences in  political  organization,  which  they  may 
be  able  to  represent  in  various  ways : 

In  the  southern  colonies  the  country  was  traversed  by 
deep,  broad  river  highways,  leading  far  inland  ;  the  cli- 
mate was  genial,  the  savages  proved  comparatively 
friendly,  and  the  introduction  of  slavery  tended  to  foster 
an  aristocratic  class  of  landed  proprietors;  large  planta- 
tions, therefore,  were  the  rule.  There  were  a  few  small 
trading  villages,  but  the  bulk  of  the  people  were  isolated, 
and  township  governments  were  impracticable.  The 
settlers,  therefore,  adopted  a  primary  government  akin  to 
the  English  rural  county,  having  jurisdiction  over  a  wide 
tract  of  country,  with  a  commander  of  militia,  appointed  by 
the  governor  and  styled  a  lieutenant,  whose  duties  and 
authority  were  similar  to  those  of  the  lords-lieutenant  at 
home,  judicial  powers  being  exercised  by  eight  or  more 
gentlemen,  also  appointed  by  the  governor,  serving  as  a 
county  court.  It  should  be  remembered  that  the  southern 
county  was  not,  as  in  England,  a  group  of  towns ;  it  was 
itself  the  primary  organization.  The  parish  was  some- 
times, in  newly  settled  portions,  co-extensive  with  the 
county;  but  more  often  the  latter  was,  for  religious  pur- 
poses, divided  into  parishes,  the  vestries  of  which  had 
authority  in  some  civil  matters.1 

The  tendency  of  the  southern  political  and  social  sys- 
tem was  to  concentrate  power  in  the  hands  of  a  few  men, 
in  sharp  distinction  to  the  New  England  plan,  where  the 
people  governed  themselves  in  small  primary  assemblies, 
only  delegating  the  conduct  of  details  to  their  agents,  the 
town  officers.2 

*Jbid.t  p.  56.        *Ibid.,  p.  57. 


IN  ELEMENTARY  EDUCA  TION         2ig 

In  New  England  the  narrowness  of  the  Atlantic  slope, 
the  shortness  of  the  rivers,  the  severe  climate,  the  hostility 
of  the  savages,  the  neighborhood  of  the  French,  the  density 
of  the  forests,  and  the  fact  that  each  community  was  an 
organized  religious  congregation  —  people  belonging  to  one 
church,  who  had  resolved  to  live  together — led  to  the 
establishment  of  more  or  less  compact  communities,  called 
towns ;  and  these  were  the  political  and  ecclesiastical  units.1 

In  the  middle  colonies,  which  partook  of  the  climatic 
characteristics  of  both  their  northern  and  southern  neigh- 
bors, and  had  a  population  made  up  of  various  nationali- 
ties, there  were  compact  trading  towns,  as  well  as  large 
agricultural  regions ;  and  there  we  find  a  mixed  system  of 
both  townships  and  counties.2 

Almost  from  the  first  the  Pilgrims  were  a 
trading  people,  and  trading  continued  to  be  one 
of  the  most  important  industries  of  the  New 
England  colonies.  The  problem  of  the  teacher 
is  not  that  of  having  the  children  read  and  recite 
these  facts.  It  is  rather  that  of  helping  them  to 
discover  in  the  situation  in  which  the  colonists 
are  placed  the  need  of  trade,  the  manner  in  which 
it  is  carried  on,  and  the  means  by  which  it  can  be 
developed. 

First  of  all  the  children  should  consider  the 
equipment  of  the  Pilgrims,  their  natural  environ- 
ment, and  the  prospect  of  their  being  able  to  live 
without  engaging  in  trade.  The  differences  in 
the  productions  of  the  northern,  middle,  and 
southern  colonies  should  be  noticed,  as  well  as 


220  THE  PLACE  OF  INDUSTRIES 

the  contrasts  between  their  productions  and  those 
of  the  West  Indies.  The  abundance  of  raw  ma- 
terials for  manufacture  in  the  New  World  and  the 
poverty  of  their  equipment  for  manufacturing, 
should  be  set  over  against  the  exhausted  condi- 
tion of  natural  resources  in  the  mother-country 
and  its  good  equipment  for  manufacturing.  Such 
a  contrast  will  make  clear  the  motive  of  the 
mother-country  in  planting  colonies  for  purposes 
of  trade. 

The  problem  of  finding  out  what  ships  came 
over  from  England  during  the  first  few  years,  and 
what  cargoes  were  taken  each  way,  can  easily  be 
solved  by  consulting  text-books,  and  the  points 
learned  may  be  represented  in  a  graphic  way  on 
maps  made  by  the  children.  The  routes  of  the 
oceanic  trade  should  be  noted,  and  their  relations 
to  ocean  currents  and  prevailing  winds.  Models 
or  drawings  of  the  ships  may  be  made,  and  of  the 
harbors  into  which  they  came. 

A  study  of  the  problem  of  the   Pilgrims  in 
securing  a  cargo  to  send  to  the  mother-country 
leads  directly  to  a  consideration  of  the  fishermen 
on  the  one  hand,  and  of  the  trappers  and  traders 
of  the  New  World   on  the  other. 

Accounts  of  the  fishing  expeditions  along  the 
Atlantic  coast  may  be  given,  and  the  relation  of 
the  settlement  of  Massachusetts  Bay  to  the 
fisheries.  The  best  fishing  grounds  should  be 


IN  ELEMENTARY  EDUCA  TION         22 1 

represented  on  the  maps,  and  a  study  made  of  the 
habits  of  the  fish  which  frequent  these  grounds 
in  the  different  seasons.  Illustrations  of  fishing 
tackle,  fishing  boats,  and  the  manner  of  curing 
and  packing  the  fish  may  be  made. 

No  phase  of  this  work  can  be  made  more  fas- 
cinating to  the  children  than  that  of  the  trade 
with  the  Indians.  Knowing  the  furs  which  are 
most  in  demand  in  England,  the  children  may 
learn  to  locate  on  their  maps  the  places  where  the 
animals  from  which  they  are  taken  are  trapped. 
A  study  of  the  habits  of  the  animals,  the  kind  of 
traps  made,  the  life  of  the  trappers  as  they  go 
their  daily  rounds,  the  journey  of  the  trappers  to 
the  trading-posts  of  the  colonists,  the  manner  of 
trade,  and  the  method  of  transporting  the  furs  to 
the  seacoast  are  subjects  which  lend  themselves 
to  both  story  and  art.  The  successive  steps  in 
the  growth  of  a  trading-post  from  a  meeting- 
place  of  the  trappers  and  traders  at  any  spot 
which  suits  the  convenience  of  the  parties,  to  the 
establishment  of  a  permanent  trading-post,  may 
be  shown  on  the  sand-maps  and  by  means  of 
drawings  and  paintings. 

The  following  description  of  a  typical  trading- 
post  may  furnish  the  teacher  with  data  which  she 
may  need  in  guiding  the  children  in  their  con- 
structive work.  The  trading-post  stands 


222  THE  PLACE  OF  INDUSTRIES 

generally  upon  the  second  or  lower  bank  of  some  navigable 
river  or  lake,  so  as  to  be  easily  accessible  to  the  boats 
which  annually  visit  it  for  supplies.  A  trading-post  is 
invariably  a  square,  inclosed  by  immense  trees  or  pickets, 
one  end  sunk  deeply  in  the  ground  and  placed  close 
together.  A  platform,  about  the  height  of  an  ordinary 
man,  is  carried  along  the  inner  side  of  the  square,  so 
as  to  enable  anyone  to  peep  over  without  danger  from 
an  arrow  or  bullet.  At  the  four  corners  are  bastions 
octagonal  in  shape,  pierced  with  embrasures,  to  lead  the 

Indians  to  believe  in  the  existence  of  cannon The 

entrance  to  the  stockade  is  closed  by  two  massive  gates,  an 
inner  and  an  outer  one.  In  the  center  of  the  square  stands 
the  residence  of  the  trader  in  charge,  and  of  the  upper  class 
employees,  while  about  its  four  sides,  close  to  the  stockade, 
are  ranged  the  trading  store,  the  fur-room,  the  warehouses 
servants'  quarters,  etc.1 

In  representing  the  routes  of  inland  trade  in 
the  early  days  of  New  England,  the  children 
should  indicate  on  their  maps  the  rivers  used, 
the  places  where  portages  would  have  to  be  made, 
the  trails,  the  traders  with  packs  upon  their  backs 
following  the  trail,  and  the  fording-places  and 
foot-bridges  which  were  used  at  that  time. 

After  the  introduction  of  domestic  animals, 
the  children  should  make  a  new  map,  or  change 
the  old  one  so  as  to  show  the  changes  made  in 
methods  of  transportation.  They  should  make 
drawings  of  long  trains  of  pack-horses  laden 

1 "  The  Honorable  Hudson  Bay  Company,"  Harper's  Maga- 
zine, Vol.  LIX,  p.  22. 


IN  ELEMENTARY  EDUCA TION         223 

with  furs  coming  down  the  trail  from  the  trading- 
post.  They  may  also  make  drawings  which 
will  show  the  packing  of  the  horses,  the  resting- 
places,  or  any  other  phase  of  the  journey  which 
interest  in  the  subject  may  call  up. 

The  change  made  about  1640,  when  the  trails 
were  widened  into  roads  and  ox-carts  were  used 
to  supplement,  if  not  to  supersede,  the  pack- 
horse,  should  also  be  represented.  This  map 
should  show  ferry-boats  at  the  places  where  the 
larger  streams  intersect  the  roads,  and  horse- 
bridges  at  the  smaller  streams.  These  changes 
should  be  related  to  the  changes  in  the  growth 
of  the  trading-post. 

The  construction  of  models  of  the  ox-carts, 
harnesses,  rope-ferries,  and  boats  presents  oppor- 
tunities for  manual  training  which  should  not  be 
neglected.  The  fact  that  two-wheeled  carts  did 
service  in  trading  and  farming  until  after  the  War 
of  1812  should  be  noticed,  together  with  the  fact 
that  for  many  years  iron  was  so  dear  that  people 
were  not  permitted  to  have  iron  tires  on  their 
cart-wheels.  In  constructing  a  model  of  a  rope- 
ferry  the  children  should  be  encouraged  to  work 
out  methods  which  will  illustrate  the  actual  man- 
ner of  moving  the  ferry  across  the  stream. 

The  beginnings  of  shipbuilding  in  the  colonies 
may  be  related,  on  the  one  hand,  to  the  demand 
for  means  of  carrying  on  trading  and  fishing 


224  THE  PLACE  OF  INDUSTRIES 

expeditions,  and,  on  the  other,  to  the  vast  forests 
in  which  could  be  found  excellent  material  for 
shipbuilding.  Lumbering,  an  important  industry 
from  the  earliest  times,  should  be  viewed  as  an 
effort  of  the  colonists  to  supply  materials  for 
trade,  for  the  manufacture  of  ships,  and  for  lum- 
ber for  better  houses,  furniture,  and  agricultural 
and  household  implements.  The  saw-mill,  when 
viewed  in  relation  to  this  network  of  activities, 
is  seen  to  be  an  essential  factor  in  securing  com- 
fortable homes  for  the  people,  ships  for  carrying 
on  trading  and  fishing  expeditions,  and  cargoes 
to  exchange  for  articles  which  are  not  yet  pro- 
duced in  the  colonies. 

The  middle  and  southern  colonies  were  able 
at  an  early  date  to  supply  the  New  England 
colonies  with  domestic  animals,  grain,  cattle,  rice, 
indigo,  and  cotton  in  exchange  for  furs  and  fish. 
Long  Island  Sound  served  to  unite  the  scattered 
New  England  colonists,  and  to  furnish  them  with 
a  protected  route  for  trade  with  the  middle  and 
southern  colonies.  These  facts  may  be  made 
clear  on  the  map,  which  should  be  referred  to 
from  time  to  time  so  as  to  insure  real  thinking  on 
the  part  of  the  children. 

Almost  every  child  learns,  while  studying 
geography,  that  New  England  is  a  manufacturing 
country.  In  view  of  this  fact,  the  teacher  should 
so  present  the  study  of  the  history  of  this  section 


IN  ELEMENTARY  EDUCA  TION         22$ 

as  to  show  the  child  the  beginnings  of  the  indus- 
tries which  are  of  such  importance  today.  The 
suggestions  thus  far  emphasize  the  fact  that  the 
New  England  colonies  from  1620  to  1640  were 
largely  producers  of  raw  materials  which  were 
manufactured  in  the  mother-country.  On  account 
of  the  poverty  of  the  colonists  and  the  remote- 
ness from  Europe,  many  of  the  necessaries  of  life 
were  manufactured  at  home  during  these  years, 
but  the  main  dependence  for  manufactured  articles 
during  this  time  was  the  mother-country. 

In  studying  the  beginnings  of  manufactures, 
let  the  children  model  New  England  in  sand  and 
locate  the  mountains  which,  at  first,  served  as  a 
fort  and  later  as  a  limit  to  expansion.  Then  let 
them  model  the  lowland  belt,  varying  in  width 
from  fifty  to  eighty  miles,  and  contrast  it  with 
the  much  wider  belt  of  fertile  land  in  the  middle 
and  southern  colonies.  Such  a  view  of  the 
country  will  give  a  basis  for  the  conclusion  that 
the  arable  lands  will  soon  be  occupied,  and  that 
the  people  must  find  other  work  to  do.  At  the 
same  time,  it  will  serve  to  reinforce  the  fact  that 
during  the  first  period  of  the  settlement  it  was  far 
easier  for  the  colonists  to  maintain  themselves  by 
agriculture,  fishing,  and  commerce  than  by  means 
of  manufacturing.  Yet  even  in  the  early  period 
beginnings  were  made,  and  the  children  may 
profitably  search  available  books  of  reference  for 


226  THE  PLACE  OF  INDUSTRIES 

accounts  of  the  first  manufactures  of  salt  for  the 
fisheries  ;  of  lime  and  brick  for  building  purposes  ; 
of  iron  for  tools;  of  machinery  for  the  manu- 
facture of  agricultural  implements ;  of  leather  for 
clothing  and  harnesses;  of  cotton,  flax,  hemp,  and 
wool  for  clothing;  and  of  lumber  for  shipbuilding 
and  many  other  forms  of  manufacture. 

Knowing  that  the  beginnings  had  already  been 
made  before  1640,  and  that  the  settlers  were 
pushing  westward  trying  to  find  larger  farms  and 
better  pasturage  for  their  cattle,  the  children  are 
prepared  to  understand  why  the  civil  war  in 
England,  which  checked  emigration  and  com- 
merce, turned  the  community  in  upon  itself,  and 
stimulated  all  forms  of  manufacture. 

Of  the  many  forms  of  manufactures  which 
grew  up  at  this  time  in  New  England,  the  textile 
industry  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  for  educa- 
tional purposes,  and  one  which  can  be  readily 
introduced  into  the  schools  with  little  or  no 
,expense.  For  these  reasons  it  is  selected  at  this 
time,  although  others  may  be  worked  out  by  the 
teacher  in  such  a  way  as  to  be  of  great  value. 

As  a  supplement  to  what  the  text-books  state 
concerning  the  textile  industry,  the  children  may 
make  a  brief  study  of  the  sources  of  such  raw 
materials  as  cotton,  flax,  hemp,  and  wool,  and  the 
method  of  preparing  them  for  use.  The  particu- 
lar material  selected  for  the  children  to  use  in 


Q     3 


s  £ 

M     (/) 

If 

Si 

H    S 


IN  ELEMENTARY  EDUCA  TION         22? 

spinning  and  weaving  depends  upon  the  natural 
resources  of  the  locality.  Where  sheep  are 
raised,  wool  is  the  most  appropriate  material  to 
use.  In  connection  with  the  discussion  of  the 
best  material  for  the  children  to  use  in  their  own 
work,  they  may  find  out  what  materials  the  New 
England  colonists  secured  directly  from  their  own 
locality,  and  what  materials  they  were  obliged  to 
import.  The  laws  made  during  this  period  which 
tended  to  promote  the  cultivation  of  flax  and  the 
raising  of  sheep  can  be  appreciated  by  the  chil- 
dren at  this  time. 

The  accompanying  illustration  will  doubtless 
speak  more  forcibly  than  words  to  the  teacher 
regarding  the  method  of  introducing  the  textile 
work  into  the  school.  It  shows  children  wash- 
ing the  wool,  spinning  with  simple  spindles  of 
their  own  manufacture,  carding  the  wool  with 
home-made  cards  and  weaving  on  a  simple  frame 
which  each  child  can  make  for  himself  out  of  four 
narrow  strips  of  wood.  In  teaching  this  subject, 
it  is  not  best  to  attempt  to  do  all  this  work  at 
once.  One  day  may  well  be  devoted  to  a  study 
of  the  wool  and  to  washing  and  drying  it. 
Another  day  may  be  given  to  experimenting 
with  the  wool  so  as  to  find  ways  of  carding  and 
spinning  it  into  yarn.  Then  the  looms  are  to  be 
invented,  not  given  ready-made,  for  it  is  in  the 
invention  of  the  apparatus  that  the  chief  value  of 


228  THE  PLACE  OF  INDUSTRIES 

the  work  consists.  The  spinning  and  weaving  by 
such  devices  as  the  children  can  invent  for  them- 
selves serves  also  to  illustrate  the  nature  of  the 
work  of  the  colonists  before  they  had  spinning- 
wheels  and  looms  with  foot-treadles. 

The  children  should  spin  enough  yarn  with 
the  simple  spindle  to  enable  them  to  appreciate 
the  value  of  commercial  materials  and  the  im- 
proved devices  by  means  of  which  they  have  been 
prepared.  Then  it  is  perfectly  legitimate  for 
them  to  make  use  of  other  materials. 

The  question  regarding  what  shall  be  woven 
in  the  first  work  depends  largely  upon  the  inter- 
ests of  the  children.  If  they  are  interested  in 
weaving  small  pieces  to  furnish  the  models  of 
the  houses  made,  they  should  be  allowed  to  do 
so ;  but  if  they  are  more  interested  in  weaving 
something  which  can  be  put  to  some  material 
use,  there  is  no  objection  to  letting  them  do  it. 
Perhaps  the  account  of  the  making  of  the  rug 
which  is  shown  on  the  opposite  page  may  be  sug- 
gestive of  ways  of  directing  the  children's  work 
to  ends  which  combine  several  valuable  points. 
The  children  in  the  fifth  grade  of  the  training 
department  of  the  University  of  Utah  wished  to 
make  the  principal  of  that  department  a  present, 
and  thought  he  might  like  a  rug  for  his  office. 
When  it  came  to  the  question  of  designing  the 
rug,  they  decided  that  the  pattern  they  were  to 


z  S 
o  s 

on      05 

W     < 

Q  S 

if 

It 


IN  ELEMENTARY  EDUCA  TION         22Q 

make  should  have  a  meaning,  and  they  agreed  to 
let  it  tell  something  of  the  pioneer  history  of 
Utah.  After  discussing  the  subject  they  chose 
the  blossom  of  the  sago  lily — a  plant  with  a  nu- 
tritious bulb  which  the  pioneers  used  as  food  in 
their  "starving  times" — and  conventionalized  it 
for  one  of  the  units  of  design.  Two  other  units 
were  made  by  conventionalizing  the  form  of  the 
grasshopper  and  of  the  sea  gull,  a  bird  sacred  in 
Utah  on  account  of  the  belief  that  the  sea  gulls 
saved  the  crops  of  Utah  by  eating  the  grass- 
hoppers which  threatened  them.  The  fourth  unit 
of  design  was  secured  by  conventionalizing  the 
form  of  the  ox-cart  used  by  the  pioneers  in  cross- 
ing the  plains.  The  illustration  shows  the  design 
made,  and  the  accompanying  pieces  show  the 
method  used  in  weaving  it.  It  is  given  here  as 
an  excellent  example  of  original  work  which 
unites  the  interests  of  children  to  those  of  the 
school  as  well  as  to  the  larger  movements  of 
history. 

Children  should  be  encouraged  to  invent 
simple  designs  of  their  own  which  have  a  social 
significance.  The  beaver,  the  canoe,  or  the  pack- 
horse  may  be  used  in  making  designs  which  will 
represent  the  fur  trade;  the  codfish  may  be  used 
as  a  symbol  of  the  fisheries ;  the  plow,  the  spade, 
and  the  hoe,  as  symbols  of  farming;  and  the  dis- 
taff as  a  symbol  of  the  textile  industry.  The 


230  THE  PLACE  OF  INDUSTRIES 

children  should  be  encouraged,  too,  to  invent 
ways  of  improving  their  spindles  and  looms,  and 
to  discover  in  the  more  complex  forms  which 
they  may  have  opportunity  to  observe,  the  essen- 
tial principles  which  are  used  in  the  crude  devices 
which  they  have  invented.1 

Colonial  methods  of  dyeing  may  also  furnish 
occupations  of  great  interest  and  value  to  chil- 
dren. In  approaching  this  subject  the  children 
should  be  encouraged  to  experiment  with  the 
juices  of  the  various  fruits,  stems,  leaves,  and 
roots  which  are  available,  and  to  determine  what 
color  they  will  yield  and  what  means  to  use  in 
order  to  "set"  the  color  so  that  it  will  not  wash 
out. 

Mrs.  Alice  Morse  Earle,  in  Home  Life  in  Co- 
lonial Days,  p.  193,  writes: 

Madder,  cochineal,  and  logwood  dyed  beautiful  reds. 
The  bark  of  red  oak  or  hickory  made  very  pretty  shades 
of  brown  and  yellow.  Various  flowers  growing  on  the 
farm  could  be  used  for  dyes.  The  flower  of  the  golden- 
rod,  when  pressed  of  its  juice,  mixed  with  indigo,  and 
added  to  alum,  made  a  beautiful  green.  The  juice  of  the 
pokeberry  boiled  with  alum  made  crimson  dye,  and  a 

1  The  limits  of  this  chapter  forbid  giving  all  the  details  which 
the  teacher  may  wish  to  know.  For  further  information  regard- 
ing methods  of  spinning  and  weaving  reference  is  made  to  ALICE 
MORSE  EARLE,  Home  Life  in  Colonial  Days,  and  to  an  article  by 
OTIS  TUFTON  MASON,  entitled  "A  Primitive  Frame  for  Weaving 
Narrow  Fabrics,"  published  in  the  Smithsonian  Report  of  the 
United  States  National  Museum,  1899,  pp.  485-510. 


IN  ELEMENTARY  EDUCA  TION         231 

violet  juice  from  the  petals  of  the  iris,  or  "flower-de-luce," 
that  blossomed  in  the  June  meadows,  gave  a  delicate 
purple  tinge  to  white  wool. 

The  relief  map  which  the  children  make  to 
represent  the  period  of  industrial  development 
beginning  about  1640  should  show  that  the 
villages  are  no  longer  isolated,  but  organized  for 
social  life.  This  organization  can  be  indicated  by 
means  of  roads,  bridges,  ferries,  boats,  carts,  pack- 
horses,  etc.  In  1643  Plymouth  colony  consisted 
of  three  thousand  inhabitants,  living  in  eight  dis- 
tinct towns.  In  addition  to  this,  it  had  several  in- 
dependent trading  and  fishing  stations  along  the 
coast.  These  should  be  shown  together  with  the 
other  settlements  in  New  England  which  we  have 
not  attempted  to  describe  at  this  time. 

The  children  may  also  make  models  of  the 
houses  which  are  typical  of  this  period,  emphasiz- 
ing the  changes  which  were  made  possible  by 
the  development  of  home  manufactures.  The 
house  of  the  earlier  period  may  do  service  at 
this  time  in  illustrating  the  dwellings  on  the 
frontier  and  in  the  isolated  farming  regions.  But 
in  the  towns  the  frame  house  appears  to  announce 
the  presence  of  the  saw-mill,  an  occasional  struc- 
ture of  brick  and  stone  bears  witness  of  the  dawn 
of  quarrying  and  brickmaking,  and  the  small 
diamond-shaped  window  panes  tell  of  the  estab- 
lishment of  glass  works. 


232  THE  PLACE  OF  INDUSTRIES 

The  following  description,  from  Weedens' 
Economic  and  Social  History  of  New  England \  p. 
214,  may  be  taken  as  typical  of  the  better  houses 
of  this  period  : 

Many  of  the  Connecticut  villagers  had  houses  two- 
storied  in  front  with  the  roof  sloping  in  the  rear  to  the  first 
story,  or  still  nearer  to  the  base,  thus  giving  the  structure 
a  firm  hold  on  the  ground.  A  "lean-to"  was  very  com- 
mon, and  closets  were  around  the  chimney  and  dipped 
into  recesses  of  the  attic.  Sometimes  they  were  planned 
for  hiding  and  concealment.  This  class  of  houses  had  four 
main  rooms,  the  larger  ones  often  twenty  feet  square,  on 
one  floor.  On  the  ground  floor  was  a  parlor,  or  "great 
room,"  for  company;  a  bedroom;  a  kitchen,  the  main 
assembling  place  of  the  family;  and  a  milk  and  cheese 
pantry. 

The  sides  of  the  houses  were  now  clapboarded, 
the  roofs  shingled,  and  the  windows  fitted  with 
glass  panes.  Stone  and  brick  were  now  used  for 
chimneys  instead  of  sticks  plastered  with  clay; 
and  hinges  of  iron  replaced  those  of  wood  and 
leather.  All  these  changes  bear  witness  of  the 
progress  of  the  colonists  in  the  manufacturing 
arts. 

There  were  velvet  chairs  in  the  parlors  of  the 
wealthy,  and  woolen  curtains,  curtain  rods,  and 
"valiants"  in  parlor  chambers.  The  bedroom 
was  seldom  heated,  and  had  it  not  been  for  the 
feather  bed  and  heavy  woolen  bed-curtains,  it 
would  have  been  exceedingly  uncomfortable. 


IN  ELEMENTARY  EDUCA  TION         233 

Let  the  children  read  descriptions  of  the  ways  in 
which  the  different  rooms  were  furnished  and 
make  models  of  the  furnished  rooms.  The 
"turn-up"  bedstead  so  common  in  colonial 
homes  was  usually  placed  in  the  kitchen,  the 
warmest  room  in  the  house,  and  was  used  by  the 
master  and  mistress.  It  consisted  of 

a  strong  frame  filled  with  a  network  of  ropes  which  was 
fastened  to  the  bed-head  by  hinges  to  the  wall.  By  night 
the  foot  of  the  bed  rested  on  two  heavy  legs ;  by  day  the 
frame  with  its  bed  furnishings  was  hooked  up  to  the  wall, 
and  covered  with  homespun  curtains  or  doors.1 

In  the  bedroom  there  was  a  high-posted  bed- 
stead, with  a  feather  bed  above  one  filled  with 
straw  or  pine  needles.  The  linen  was  fine  and 
white,  and  the  bed-quilts  were  of  varied  patterns. 
Coverlets  woven  in  "fanciful  and  geometric 
designs"  were  a  favorite  bed-covering  in  colonial 
days.  The  warming-pan,  used  to  warm  the  cold 
sheets  during  the  winter,  was  found  in  the  better 
homes.  A  bureau  with  drawers,  a  washstand,  a 
wash  basin,  a  soap-box,  and  brush-tray  completed 
the  bedroom  outfit. 

The  kitchen  was  the  most  important  and  the 
most  comfortable  room  in  the  house.  The  signifi- 
cance of  this  room  as  a  social  and  industrial 
center  has  been  so  well  described  by  Mr.  Sheldon 
in  his  History  of  Deerfield,  Vol.  I,  pp.  279-81, 

1  ALICE  MORSE  EARLE,  op.  cit.,  p.  55. 


234  THE  PLA  CE  OF  IND  US  TRIES 

that  the  teacher  will  find  it  rich  in  suggestions 
for  a  great  variety  of  illustrative  work.  He 
writes : 

The  ample  kitchen  was  the  center  of  family  life,  social 
and  industrial.  Here  around  the  rough  table,  seated  on 
rude  stools  or  benches,  all  partook  of  the  plain  and  some- 
times stinted  fare.  A  glance  at  the  family  gathered  here 
after  nightfall  of  a  winter's  day  may  proof  of  interest. 
After  a  supper  of  bean  porridge,  or  hasty-pudding  and 
milk,  of  which  all  partake  in  common  from  a  pewter  basin, 
or  wooden  bowl,  with  spoons  of  wood,  horn,  or  pewter; 
after  a  reverent  reading  of  the  Bible,  and  fervent  suppli- 
cation to  the  Most  High  for  care  and  guidance  ;  after  the 
watch  was  set  on  the  tall  mount,  and  the  vigilant  sen'dnel 
began  pacing  his  lonely  beat,  the  shutters  were  closed  and 
barred,  and  with  a  sense  of  security  the  occupations  of  the 
long  winter  evening  began.  Here  was  a  picture  of  in- 
dustry, enjoined  alike  by  the  law  of  the  land  and  the  stern 
necessities  of  the  settlers.  All  were  busy.  Idleness  was 
a  crime.  On  the  settle,  or  a  low  armchair,  in  the  most 
sheltered  nook,  sat  the  revered  grandam  —  as  a  term  of 
endearment  called  granny — in  red  woolen  gown  and 
white  linen  cap,  her  gray  hair  and  wrinkled  face  reflecting 
the  bright  firelight,  the  long  stocking  growing  under  her 
busy  needles,  while  she  watched  the  youngling  of  the 
flock  in  the  cradle  by  her  side.  The  good  wife,  in  linsey- 
woolsey  short-gown  and  red  petticoat,  steps  lightly  back 
and  forth  in  calf  pumps,  beside  the  great  wheel,  or  poising 
gracefully  on  the  right  foot,  the  left  hand  extended  with  the 
roll  or  bat,  while  with  a  wheel-finger  in  the  other  she  gives 
the  wheel  a  few  short  turns  for  a  final  twist  to  the  long- 
drawn  thread  of  wool  or  tow.  The  continuous  buzz  of  the 
flax  wheels,  harmonizing  with  the  spasmodic  hum  of  the 


IN  ELEMENT  A  RY  ED  UCA  TION         235 

big  wheel,  shows  that  the  girls  are  preparing  a  stock  of 
linen  against  their  wedding-day.  Less  active  and  more 
fitful  rattled  the  quill  wheel,  where  the  younger  children 
are  filling  quills  for  the  morrow's  weaving. 

Craftsmen  are  still  scarce,  and  the  yeoman  must  de- 
pend largely  on  his  own  skill  and  resources.  The  grandsire, 
and  the  goodman,  his  son,  in  blue  woolen  frocks,  buckskin 
breeches,  long  stockings,  and  clouted  brogans  with  pewter 
buckles,  and  the  older  boys,  in  shirts  of  brown  tow,  waist- 
coat and  breeches  of  butter-nut-colored  woolen  homespun, 
surrounded  by  piles  of  hickory  shavings,  are  whittling  out 
with  keen  Barlow  jackknives  implements  for  home  use ; 
ox-bows  and  bow-pins,  ax-helves,  rakestales,  forkstales. 
handles  for  spades  and  billhooks,  wooden  shovels,  flail  staff 
and  swingle,  swingling  knives,  or  pokes  and  hog  yokes  for 
unruly  cattle  and  swine.  The  more  ingenious  perhaps  are 
fashioning  buckets,  or  powdering  tubs,  or  weaving  skepes, 
baskets,  or  snow-shoes.  Some,  it  may  be,  sit  astride  the 
wooden  shovel,  shelling  corn  on  its  iron-shod  edge,  while 
others  are  pounding  it  into  samp  or  hominy  in  the  great 
wooden  mortar. 

There  are  no  lamps  or  candles,  but  the  red  light  from 
the  burning  pine-knots  on  the  hearth  glows  over  all,  repeat- 
ing in  fantastic  pantomime  on  the  brown  walls  and  closed 
shutters  the  varied  activities  around  it.  These  are  occa- 
sionally brought  into  a  higher  relief  by  the  white  flashes, 
as  the  boys  throw  handfuls  of  hickory  shavings  on  to  the 
forestick,  or  punch  the  backlog  with  the  long  iron-peel, 
while  wishing  they  had  "  as  many  shillings  as  sparks  go  up 
the  chimney."  Then  the  smoke-stained  joists  and  boards  of 
the  ceiling,  with  the  twisted  rings  of  pumpkin,  strings  of 
crimson  peppers,  and  festoons  of  apples  drying  on  poles 
hung  beneath  ;  the  men's  hats,  the  crook -necked  squashes 
the  skeins  of  thread  and  yarn  hanging  in  bunches  on  the 


236  THE  PLACE  OF  INDUSTRIES 

wainscot ;  the  sheen  of  the  pewter  plates  and  basins,  stand- 
ing in  rows  on  the  shelves  of  the  dresser ;  the  trusty  fire- 
lock, with  powder  horn,  bandolier,  and  bullet  pouch,  hang- 
ing on  the  summertree,  and  the  bright  brass  warming-pan 
behind  the  bedroom  door  —  all  stand  revealed  more  clearly 
for  an  instant,  showing  the  provident  care  for  the  comfort 
and  safety  of  the  household.  Dimly  seen  in  the  corners  of 
the  room  are  baskets,  in  which  are  packed  hands  of  flax 
from  the  barn,  where,  under  the  flax-brake,  the  swingling- 
knife,  and  coarse  hackle,  the  shives  and  swingling  tow 
have  been  removed  by  the  men  ;  tomorrow  the  more  deft 
manipulations  of  the  women  will  prepare  these  bunches  of 
fiber  for  the  little  wheel,  and  granny  will  card  the  tow  into 
bats,  to  be  spun  into  tow  yarn  on  the  big  wheel. 

Mrs.  Alice  Morse  Earle's  description  of  the 
fireplace  is  also  suggestive  to  the  teacher.  She 
writes : 

When  the  great  stone  chimney  was  built,  there  was 
usually  placed  on  one  side  of  the  kitchen  fireplace  a  brick 
oven  which  had  a  smoke  uptake  into  the  chimney  and  an 
ash-pit  below.  The  great  door  was  of  iron.  The  oven 
was  usually  heated  once  a  week.  A  great  fire  of  dry  wood, 
called  oven  wood,  was  kindled  within  it  and  kept  burning 
fiercely  for  some  hours.  This  thoroughly  heated  all  the 
bricks.  The  coals  and  ashes  were  then  swept  out,  the 
chimney  draught  closed,  and  the  oven  filled  with  brown 
bread,  pies,  pots  of  beans,  etc.  Sometimes  bread  was 
baked  in  pans,  sometimes  it  was  baked  in  a  great  mass  set 
on  cabbage  leaves  or  oak  leaves.  In  some  towns  an 
autumn  harvest  of  oak  leaves  was  gathered  by  children  to 
use  throughout  the  winter.  The  leaves  were  strung  on 
sticks.  This  gathering  was  called  "  going  a-leafing." 


IN  ELEMENTARY  ED UCA  TION         237 

The  children  can  easily  construct  models  of 
the  great  chimney  and  fireplace,  and  the  oven, 
and  make  models  of  the  implements  used  to  hold 
the  logs  and  the  cooking  utensils  in  place.  If 
they  make  models  of  the  utensils  used  in  the  fire- 
place and  put  them  in  their  proper  places,  it  will 
be  easy  for  them  to  discover  the  reason  for  the 
long  handles  and  long  legs  of  the  cooking  uten- 
sils used  in  fireplaces,  and  why  hooks  were  used 
from  which  pots  and  kettles  could  be  hung  at 
varying  heights  over  the  fire.  Many  of  the  cook- 
ing utensils  and  dishes  for  serving  food  may  be 
modeled  in  clay  or  whittled  out  of  soft  wood. 
The  picture  of  the  fireplace  would  not  be  com- 
plete without  the  blocks  or  stools  in  the  chimney 
corners  upon  which  the  children  sat,  and  the 
high-backed  settle  which  protected  the  aged  from 
the  strong  drafts  made  by  the  fire. 

In  reconstructing  the  dwellings  of  colonial 
times  and  making  models  of  the  furniture,  it  must 
be  remembered  that  until  1650  furniture  was  very 
scarce.  Up  to  this  time  it  consisted  chiefly  of  a 
table  board  which  was  placed  upon  trestles,  a 
plain  chest  which  did  service  as  a  trunk,  a  table, 
or  a  chair,  a  settle  beside  the  fireplace  and  per- 
haps one  high-backed,  broad-bottomed  armchair 
for  grown-up  people  only,  crickets  for  the  chil- 
dren, and  home-made  bedsteads  and  trundle-beds. 
With  the  growth  of  home  manufactures  and  with 


238  THE  PLACE  OF  INDUSTRIES 

the  increased  wealth  of  the  people  better  furni- 
ture was  made,  illustrations  of  which  the  children 
will  find  no  difficulty  in  procuring,  if  they  once 
begin  the  search. 

The  first  of  the  illustrations  on  the  opposite 
page  shows  constructive  work  which  was  done  by 
a  fifth-grade  class  without  an  equipment  in  con- 
nection with  the  study  of  colonial  history.  The 
second  illustration  shows  work  done  in  the  Labo- 
ratory School  of  the  University  of  Chicago  when 
it  was  fairly  well  equipped  for  industrial  work. 
No  school  is  too  poor  to  make  a  beginning  in 
such  work,  and,  a  beginning  once  made,  the  work 
must  stand  on  its  own  merits. 

Colonial  methods  of  cooking  may  be  made  an 
interesting  and  profitable  study.  Children  in 
schools  not  equipped  for  regular  work  in  cooking 
can  find  ways  of  preparing  a  colonial  supper  after 
finishing  this  phase  of  the  subject.  If,  in  addi- 
tion to  the  meal,  the  children  have  on  exhibition 
the  constructive  work  which  they  have  made,  and 
if  they  explain  it  to  their  guests,  or  read  brief 
papers  which  they  have  written  on  the  subjects, 
the  enthusiasm  of  the  teacher  and  the  children 
will  be  likely  to  spread  to  the  parents  and  friends 
of  the  school,  who  may  be  instrumental  in  securing 
more  favorable  opportunities  for  carrying  on  the 
work. 


COLONIAL  HISTORY. 

(STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL,  OSHKOSH,  wis.) 


COLONIAL  HISTORY. 
(THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  CHICAGO,  LABORATORY  SCHOOL.) 


SN  ELEMENTARY  EDUCA TION         239 

The  suggestions  regarding  the  practical  work 
which  the  children  can  do  in  connection  with  the 
study  of  colonial  history  ought  not  to  be  com- 
pleted without  mention  of  the  various  kinds  of 
work  partaking  somewhat  of  the  character  of  a 
festival.  The  spinning,  quilting,  apple-paring, 
husking,  chopping,  and  stone-hauling  bees,  the 
raisings,  and  the  annual  soap-making  in  the 
spring  and  candle-making  in  the  fall  were  full  of 
social  significance  for  the  people  of  colonial  days, 
and  the  representation  of  these  occupations  by 
means  of  illustrative,  experimental,  and  real  work 
may  be  made  as  valuable  to  the  child.  Excellent 
descriptions  of  such  co-operative  industries  can 
be  found  in  the  books  of  Mrs.  Alice  Morse  Earle, 
who  is  an  authority  on  the  subject  of  colonial  life. 

As  a  preparation  for  the  subject  of  candle- 
making  the  children  may  make  lists  of  the  differ- 
ent ways  in  which  the  people  lighted  their  dwell- 
ings before  they  had  domestic  animals.  This  list 
should  include  (i)  the  firelight  from  the  fire- 
place, (2)  the  pine-knots,  full  of  pitch,  called 
candle-wood  and  gathered  in  large  quantities  each 
fall  when  they  were  stored  for  the  winter's  use, 
and  (3)  rushlights  made  by  stripping  part  of  the 
outer  bark  from  rushes  and  dipping  the  bare  pith 
into  melted  fat. 

Although  most  children  have  seen  candles, 
they  may  not  know  the  materials  used  in  making 


240  THE  PLACE  OF  INDUSTRIES 

them.  It  will  be  well,  then,  for  the  children  to  find 
out  what  materials  are  used  in  making  candles, 
and  whether  the  early  colonists  had  such  materials. 
They  should  compare  tallow  with  lard,  so  as  to 
understand  why  candles  were  made  of  tallow. 
Then  they  can  be  told  of  the  bayberry  wax 
which  the  colonists  used  to  make  the  tallow 
harder.  If  they  do  not  know  how  the  tallow  is 
"tried,"  they  may  learn  in  an  experimental  way 
by  "trying"  a  small  piece  of  the  fat  of  beef.  If 
tallow  cannot  be  procured  easily,  paraffin  may  be 
substituted  for  it. 

Mrs.  Earle's  account  of  dipping  candles  may  be 
used  as  a  guide  in  the  real  work  and  in  the  illus- 
trative constructive  work  and  drawings.  She 
writes  : 

The  making  of  the  winter's  stock  of  candles  was  the 
special  autumnal  household  duty,  and  a  hard  one,  too,  for 
the  great  kettles  were  tiresome  and  heavy  to  handle.  An 
early  hour  found  the  work  well  under  way.  A  good  fire 
was  started  in  the  kitchen  fireplace  under  two  vast  kettles, 
each  two  feet,  perhaps,  in  diameter,  which  were  hung  on 
trammels  from  the  lug-pole  or  crane,  and  half  filled  with 
boiling  water  and  melted  tallow,  which  had  had  two 
scaldings  and  skimmings.  At  the  end  of  the  kitchen  or  in 
an  adjoining  and  cooler  room,  sometimes  in  the  lean-to, 
two  long  poles  were  laid  from  chair  to  chair  or  stool  to 
stool.  Across  these  poles  were  placed  at  regular  intervals, 
like  the  rounds  of  a  ladder,  smaller  sticks  about  fifteen  or 
eighteen  inches  long,  called  candle-rods.  These  poles  and 


IN  ELEMENTARY  EDUCA  TION         241 

rods  were  kept  from  year  to  year,  either  in  the  garret  or 
up  on  the  kitchen  beams. 

To  each  candle-rod  was  attached  about  six  or  eight 
carefully  straightened  candle  wicks.  The  wicking  was 
twisted  strongly  one  way;  then  doubled ;  then  the  loop  was 
slipped  over  the  candle-rod,  when  the  two  ends,  of  course, 
twisted  the  other  way  around  each  other,  making  a 
firm  wick.  A  rod  with  its  row  of  wicks,  was  dipped  in  the 
melted  tallow  in  the  pot,  and  returned  to  its  place  across 
the  poles.  Each  row  was  thus  dipped  in  regular  turn; 
each  had  time  to  cool  and  harden  between  the  dips,  and 
thus  grow  steadily  in  size.1 

In  nearly  every  neighborhood  some  one  has 
a  pair  of  candle-molds  which  are  similar  to  those 
used  by  the  colonists  in  New  England.  The 
making  of  candles  by  using  such  molds  is  inter- 
esting to  the  child,  not  merely  in  itself,  but  as  a 
means  of  understanding  a  phase  of  pioneer  life 
throughout  all  parts  of  the  United  States.  If 
candle-molds  cannot  be  found,  let  the  children 
invent  candle-molds  and  make  candles  in  them. 
The  illustration  opposite  page  236  shows  a  candle- 
mold  invented  by  a  boy  of  about  eleven  years. 
Candlesticks,  too,  may  be  invented  by  the  chil- 
dren and  modeled  in  clay.  Pictures  of  candle- 
sticks, snuffers,  and  tray  may  be  collected  to 
illustrate  this  mode  of  lighting.  Simple  oil 
lamps  like  the  old  Roman  lamps  may  be  modeled 
by  the  children  in  clay. 

1  See  Home  Life  in  Colonial  Days,  p.  36. 


242  THE  PLACE  OF  INDUSTRIES 

Should  the  teacher  desire  to  let  the  children 
try  the  colonial  method  of  making  soap,  she  will 
have  no  difficulty  in  getting  information  regard- 
ing the  process  from  almost  any  old  lady  or 
gentleman  of  her  acquaintance.  It  is  quite  as 
important  for  the  teacher  to  acquire  the  habit  of 
learning  from  people  and  from  nature,  as  from 
books.  By  making  use  of  different  sources  of 
knowledge,  and  by  encouraging  the  children  to 
do  the  same,  the  prevalent  habit  of  regarding 
the  statements  made  in  books  as  final  will  be 
transformed  into  that  of  regarding  them  as  means 
of  securing  information  and  helpful  suggestions 
for  which  a  need  has  been  felt.  It  is  hoped  that 
the  suggestions  given  in  this  chapter  will  be 
regarded  in  this  light. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

CONCLUSION. 

"  The  more  things  thou  learnest  to  know  and  to  enjoy 
the  more  complete  and  full  will  be  for  thee  the  delight  of 
living." — Phlalen. 

A  COMPLETE  consideration  of  the  place  of  in- 
dustries in  elementary  education  would  require  a 
work  of  several  large  volumes.  This  is  merely  a 
preliminary  survey  of  the  field  for  the  purpose  of 
getting  such  a  perspective  as  is  necessary  in  order 
to  evaluate  the  industrial  activities  of  any  age, 
and  to  discover  the  underlying  principles  which 
determine  the  practical  application  of  the  ma- 
terials considered.  The  applications  presented  in 
the  preceding  chapters  are  suggestive  only.  A 
more  detailed  application  is  presented  in  another 
place.1 

In  the  first  chapter  we  set  out  with  certain 
fundamental  problems.  In  the  succeeding  chap- 
ters we  reviewed  various  phases  of  social  experi- 
ence with  reference  to  those  problems.  In  the 
preceding  chapters  we  have  suggested  some  prac- 
tical applications.  At  this  time  let  us  make  a 
brief  summary  of  the  more  important  results  of 
the  work. 

1  "  Industrial  and  Social  History  Series,"  Rand,  McNally  &  Co. 
243 


244  THE  PLACE  OF  INDUSTRIES 

In  reviewing  the  more  important  industrial 
epochs  we  have  found  that  in  each  there  is  a 
close  relation  between  the  dominant  industry  of 
the  period  and  the  natural  and  social  environ- 
ment of  the  people.  Each  dominant  form  of 
industry  is  conditioned  by  its  environment  and, 
in  turn,  conditions  all  other  forms  of  activity.  A 
change  introduced  into  any  part  of  an  industrial 
process  affects  not  merely  the  entire  process, 
but  its  influence  permeates  every  department  of 
life. 

The  introduction  of  a  new  motive  power 
means,  on  the  one  hand,  the  introduction  of  a 
new  means  of  applying  that  power,  and,  on  the 
other,  a  new  form  for  the  organization  of  labor. 
An  advance  in  the  use  of  a  new  material  is 
attended  by  similar  changes.  Whether  the 
advance  be  in  the  form  of  the  use  of  a  new 
material,  the  conquest  of  a  new  force,  or  in  the 
more  economical  application  of  the  same,  it  inev- 
itably reacts  upon  the  lives  of  the  workers  so  as 
to  develop  a  different  quality  of  life,  a  different 
mode  of  interpreting  phenomena. 

The  type  of  man's  emotional  reactions  was 
fixed  by  the  conditions  of  life  in  a  dangerous 
situation,  but  his  attitudes  have  been  modified, 
under  the  influence  of  social  approval,  by  the 
activities  of  succeeding  ages.  Throughout  long 
periods  all  activities  were  dominated  by  the  con- 


IN  ELEMENTARY  EDUCA  TION          245 

ditions  attending  the  fierce  struggle  for  exist- 
ence, the  very  difficulty  of  the  struggle  making 
it  necessary  for  the  individual  to  accumulate 
energy  sufficient  not  only  for  the  ordinary  affairs 
of  life,  but  for  the  emergencies  as  well.  It  is  due  to 
this  fact  that  man  accumulated  surplus  energy, 
which,  when  not  needed  in  the  serious  activities 
of  life,  was  expended  in  some  form  of  art  or  play. 
In  expressions  of  playful  activity  the  formed 
physical  co-ordinations  and  emotional  attitudes 
united  in  favoring  a  discharge  along  lines  marked 
out  by  the  serious  activities  of  life. 

Under  the  influence  of  personal  need  and 
social  approval  man  gradually  learned  to  refrain 
more  and  more  from  purely  instinctive  action  and 
to  secure,  through  the  exercise  of  associative 
memory,  more  indirect  and  economical  modes  of 
response.  The  advantage  of  such  acts,  once 
being  perceived,  was  made  subject  to  more  con- 
scious control.  The  increasing  complexity  of 
the  situation  was  thus  paralleled  by  an  increasing 
complexity  in  man's  response.  Life  became 
more  complex.  The  problem,  which  at  first  was 
plain  and  direct,  became  more  and  more  obscure. 
The  emotional  reactions  were  lost,  and  it  became 
necessary  to  rely  upon  artificial  means  of  sus- 
taining activity. 

In  the  earlier  periods  labor  was  the  part  of  all 
and  was  attended  by  strong  feelings  of  pleasure 


246  THE  PLACE  OF  INDUSTRIES 

that  always  accompany  the  normal  exercise  of 
the  workmanship  instinct.  In  the  barbarian 
stage  of  culture  a  division  of  labor  was  made 
which  assigned  the  less  intellectual  occupa- 
tions to  slaves.  The  associations  thus  made  re- 
sulted in  a  disdain  for  labor  which  characterized 
the  leisure  class  of  that  period.  Later,  in  the 
ancient  civilizations  of  the  city-states,  religion 
placed  such  restrictions  upon  labor  as  to  lend  its 
sanction  to  regard  as  wrong  what  had  previously 
been  regarded  merely  as  ignoble.  These  restric- 
tions deprived  the  leisure  class  of  the  pleasure 
attending  the  normal  exercise  of  the  workman- 
ship instinct,  and  the  laboring  class  of  the  condi- 
tions essential  to  securing  attention  and  the 
normal  action  of  the  necessary  reflexes.  The 
emotional  reactions  were  thus  lost,  and  labor  be- 
came irksome. 

The  changes  resulting  from  the  organization  of 
labor  under  the  handicraft  system  were  such  as  to 
separate  the  entire  process  into  so  many  lesser 
activities  as  to  obscure,  in  the  minds  of  the 
workers,  the  complete  view  of  the  situation. 
Later,when  wind  and  water  power  were  substituted 
for  human  and  animal  power,  and,  finally,  when 
the  almost  universal  use  of  steam  transformed 
the  entire  industrial  organization,  the  minute 
division  of  labor  made  necessary  by  the  change 
still  further  obscured  the  view  of  the  process  as 


IN  ELEMENTARY  EDUCA  TION          247 

a  whole.  Owing  to  the  rapidity  of  the  change 
wrought  by  the  use  of  steam,  and  on  account  of 
the  fact  that  under  this  system  it  is  possible  to 
utilize  a  great  amount  of  unskilled  labor,  no  ade- 
quate provision  has  been  made  for  such  an  edu- 
cation of  the  mass  of  workers  as  is  necessary  in 
order  to  preserve  the  balance  between  the  tech- 
nique of  the  entire  process  and  the  intellectual 
and  moral  character  of  all  classes  of  workers. 

How  the  simple  forms  of  industry  have  affected 
the  development  of  the  arts  and  sciences ;  how 
the  gesture  language  of  the  pantomimic  dance, 
which  was  closely  related  to  practical  activities, 
developed  into  dramatic  poetry ;  how,  later,  it 
took  the  form  of  the  festival  and  only  gradually 
became  free  from  the  serious  activities  of  life; 
how  epic  poetry  was  first  bound  up  with  such 
activities;  how,  as  people  became  more  conscious 
of  the  significance  of  their  acts,  the  heroic  song 
arose,  which,  first  sung  by  the  people,  finally  was 
sung  by  a  professional  singer  ;  how,  finally,  it 
made  itself  free  from  music  ;  how  the  freeing  of 
epic,  lyric,  and  dramatic  poetry  succeeded  each 
other  in  obedience  to  laws  similar  to  those  which 
govern  the  freeing  of  architecture,  sculpture,  and 
painting;  in  short,  how  the  typical  steps  in  the 
evolution  of  the  various  arts  and  sciences  have 
been  taken,  are  problems  which  we  have  been 
obliged  to  pass  with  little  notice. 


248  THE  PLACE  OF  INDUSTRIES 

With  regard  to  the  child,  we  have  noticed  the 
correspondence  between  his  psychical  attitudes 
and  the  ancient  activities  that  underlie  our  indus- 
trial processes.  These  attitudes  persist  in  the 
child,  not  as  serious  activities,  but  as  idealized  or 
dramatic  representations  of  the  same.  In  many 
cases  they  appear  as  reductions  of  the  original 
activity  which  have  become  incorporated  into 
later  formed  co-ordinations. 

It  is  the  function  of  education  to  lay  hold  of 
these  native  reactions  and  to  graft  upon  them 
habits  related  to  the  society  in  which  we  live. 
In  later  infancy  play  is  the  prime  agency  by 
means  of  which  the  native  reactions  may  be- 
come transformed  into  a  multitude  of  co-ordina- 
tions ;  in  childhood  play  is  supplemented  and 
gradually  superseded  by  the  constructive  activity, 
which  begins  to  manifest  itself  in  the  period  of 
infancy.  For  several  years  construction  holds 
the  sciences  and  arts  within  itself;  but,  gradu- 
ally, they  become  more  and  more  free. 

The  natural  demand  of  the  mind  in  all  stages 
of  its  development  for  the  completion  of  a  situa- 
tion requires  that  an  opportunity  be  presented 
for  the  exercise  of  the  instinct  to  exploit  the 
environment  in  the  search  of  raw  materials,  the 
exercise  of  the  workmanship  instinct  in  the  pro- 
cess of  manufacturing  the  same,  and  the  exercise 
of  the  social  instinct  in  the  consumption  or  use 


IN  ELEMENTARY  EDUCA  TION          249 

of  the  articles  produced.  In  fact,  the  social 
instinct  affects  each  step  in  the  process.  The 
desire  to  enhance  one's  personality  under  the 
stimulus  of  social  approval  operates  to  form 
habits  of  industry  which  condition  all  higher 
forms  of  activity. 

The  process  of  socializing  the  instinctive  ac- 
tivities of  the  child  is  greatly  facilitated  by 
the  use  of  racial  experiences.  Collective  in- 
dustries are  of  value  in  this  connection,  for  in 
such  activities  the  individual  for  the  time  loses 
himself  in  the  consciousness  of  the  group.  The 
representation  of  great  public  works,  which  may 
lie  beyond  the  limits  of  sense  perception,  stimu- 
lates the  imagination,  widens  the  sympathies, 
and  establishes  a  feeling  of  kinship  with  a  larger 
world. 

We  have  seen  that  the  instincts  and  attitudes 
that  underlie  industry  are  those  that  underlie 
the  sciences  and  the  arts.  They  are  the  common 
heritage  of  mankind.  If  conditions  are  such 
that  they  can  find  opportunity  for  normal  expres- 
sion they  afford  pleasure  to  the  individual  and, 
at  the  same  time,  serve  as  useful  instruments  of 
social  service.  If  denied  a  normal  expression  in 
keeping  with  the  stage  of  development  of  the 
individual  and  the  society  in  which  he  lives,  they 
are  apt  to  suffer  atrophy  through  disuse,  or  to  be 
diverted  into  anti-social  forms.  In  either  case 


2  50  THE  PLA  CE  OF  IND USTRIES 

the  individual  is  deprived  of  the  joy  that  attends 
the  normal  exercise  of  his  full  powers,  and  so- 
ciety is  deprived  of  his  legitimate  service. 

Society  can  no  longer  afford  to  suffer  such 
loss  as  attends  this  neglect.  It  is  the  part  of 
educators  to  sift  the  experiences  of  the  past,  so 
as  to  preserve  that  experience  which  is  helpful 
and  to  reject  that  which  tends  toward  the  loss 
of  any  part  of  the  full  heritage^'of  each  child.  It 
is  only  too  evident  that  there  has  been  a  ten- 
dency in  the  school  to  neglect  the  development  of 
the  normal  attitudes  of  the  child  and  to  cultivate 
abnormal  ones  by  imposing  the  formulated  results 
of  a  highly  organized  system  upon  the  child,  who 
is  not  yet  able  to  assimilate  such  material.  Edu- 
cation is  beginning  to  be  established  upon  a 
firmer  basis,  however,  and  we  may  hope  for  more 
rational  methods  in  the  near  future. 

It  is  not  too  much  to  expect  that  the  marvel- 
ous change  wrought  in  the  industrial  world  by 
the  application  of  modern  science  to  industrial 
processes  will  be  paralleled  by  as  remarkable  an 
advance  in  education.  It  was  natural  and  right 
that  science,  whose  roots  strike  deep  into  the  in- 
dustries of  the  past,  should,  on  becoming  free  to 
express  itself  on  its  own  account,  return  with  its 
first  fruits  to  the  parent  stock  from  which  it 
sprang.  In  this  way  it  has  laid  a  broad  founda- 
tion for  its  own  further  development;  it  has 


IN  ELEMENTARY  EDUCA  TION 


created  a  demand  for  that  which  it  alone  can 
give,  and,  at  the  same  time,  it  has  suggested  the 
possibility  of  a  similar  application  to  new  fields. 

As  yet  we  are  only  beginning  to  know  the 
child.  We  have  become  well  enough  acquainted 
with  him  to  realize  that  there  is  an  enormous 
waste  in  current  educational  methods,  but  com- 
paratively little  has  yet  been  done  to  utilize  this 
waste.  We  must  call  science  to  our  aid  if  we 
would  make  an  economical  adjustment  of  the 
motive  power  in  education  to  the  work  to  be  done. 
We  must  study  the  child  in  his  environment. 
Dr.  Loeb1  has  demonstrated  with  lower  forms  of 
life  how  instincts  may  be  changed  by  changing 
the  temperature,  light,  or  other  external  condi- 
tions. Our  own  experience  in  regard  to  the 
change  in  attitude  that  accompanies  a  change  in 
our  natural  or  social  environment  indicates  that 
the  truth  to,  which  Dr.  Loeb  has  called  attention 
is  not  confined  to  the  lower  orders  of  life.  It 
ought  to  be  possible  to  make  such  a  study  of 
child-life  under  various  conditions  as  to  deter- 
mine in  a  much  more  minute  way  than  that  here 
outlined,  and  with  scientific  accuracy,  the  normal 
attitudes  of  each  stage  of  development,  as  well  as 
the  conditions  best  adapted  to  secure  and  main- 
tain them. 

This  work  can   best  be  accomplished  by  the 

x  JACQUES  LOEB,    The  Physiology  of  the  Brain,  pp.  198,  199. 


252  THE  PLACE  OF  INDUSTRIES 

departments  of  education  in  our  great  universi- 
ties in  co-operation  with  the  departments  of  those 
sciences  that  are  tributary  to  the  same.  The 
fear  that  something  will  be  lost  in  life  if  it  is  sub- 
jected to  an  interpretation  through  the  media  of 
physical  and  chemical  laws  is  no  better  grounded 
than  the  fear  that  the  Bible  will  suffer  when  sub- 
jected to  the  search-light  of  the  higher  criticism. 
That  which  is  true  and  that  which  is  holy  cannot 
suffer  by  being  subjected  to  the  most  rigorous 
tests.  Such  processes,  by  means  of  separating 
the  transient  from  the  permanent  factors,  the 
non-essential  from  the  essential,  serve  to  illumi- 
nate the  truth  so  as  to  greatly  multiply  its  power. 
The  various  search-lights  of  truth  sent  out  by  the 
different  departments  of  science  cannot  fail  to 
disclose  facts  which  will  serve  to  mutually  check 
or  reinforce  one  another. 

From  the  practical  workers  in  the  elementary 
schools  we  may  expect  valuable  contributions. 
By  the  very  nature  of  their  duties  they  cannot 
take  the  attitude  of  the  investigator.  Synthesis 
rather  than  analysis,  art  rather  than  science,  gives 
color  to  their  work.  It  would  be  a  mistake  to 
destroy  this  attitude  by  requiring  attention  to 
new  questions  that  make  such  a  demand  upon 
the  analytic  habit  of  mind  as  to  interfere  with  the 
synthetic.  If,  however,  such  a  training1  has  pre- 

1  It  is  to  the  Normal  Schools  that  we  must  look  for  this  training. 


IN  ELEMENTARY  EDUCA  TION          253 

ceded  the  practical  work  as  will  enable  one  to 
duly  subordinate  analysis  to  synthesis,  results  of 
real  value  may  be  expected  from  such  sources. 
There  is  need  of  co-operation  here  as  elsewhere 
in  order  to  secure  the  best  results.  The  best 
results  of  co-operation  between  those  who  are 
engaged  largely  in  the  work  of  investigation  and 
those  who  are  occupied  chiefly  with  the  practical 
work  will  come  when  the  latter  are  free  to  follow 
interests  which  have  a  direct  relation  to  their 
own  practical  problems.  In  many  cases  the 
results  of  the  experience  of  the  practical  workers 
will  be  best  gained  by  means  of  informal  confer- 
ences between  them  and  the  scientific  investi- 
gator. In  other  cases  more  systematic  work  may 
be  carried  on  by  the  practical  worker  in  co-oper- 
ation with  the  investigator.  Parents  and  teachers, 
better  than  any  other  people,  can  know  the  spon- 
taneous activities  of  the  child.  They  can  deter- 
mine the  attitude  of  the  child  toward  various 
activities  and  toward  the  various  tools  and 
materials  with  which  he  comes  in  contact.  The 
physician  can  determine  better  than  any  other 
the  physical  conditions.  The  scientific  investi- 
gator can  supplement  this  knowledge  by  the 
results  of  various  experimental  tests  and  can 
correlate  the  available  results  of  all  methods 
used. 

The  work  of  furnishing  nutritious  materials  for 


254  THE  PLACE  OF  INDUSTRIES 

an  all-round  growth  of  mind  in  the  successive 
stages  of  development  is  not  an  unimportant 
one.  While  it  is  true  that  if  there  were  less 
pressure  from  above  regarding  the  question  of 
the  acquisition  of  certain  formulated  results  of 
civilization,  the  teacher  and  children  would 
occupy  themselves  with  more  vital  questions 
than  many  of  those  to  which  much  attention  is 
now  given,  we  can  expect  no  really  cumulative 
results  until  the  materials  of  instruction  are  or- 
ganized more  definitely  with  reference  to  the  atti- 
tudes of  the  child.  This  fact  should  be  recog- 
nized by  the  makers  of  our  text-books.  Much 
of  what  is  vital  to  the  child  now  remains  stored 
away  in  the  dusty  alcoves  of  our  great  libraries.1 
Few  but  specialists  make  use  of  these  materials  ; 
and,  hitherto,  little  effort  has  been  made  to  make 
any  use  of  them  with  reference  to  the  needs  of 
children.  There  is  need  of  laying  hold  of  these 
rich  stores  of  experience  and  of  organizing  them  in 
such  a  way  as  to  render  them  available  for  gen- 
eral use.  There  is  need  of  incorporating  in 
text-books  for  children  such  a  presentation  of 
the  problems  of  racial  life  as  corresponds  to  the 
child's  own  attitudes.  There  is  need  of  present- 
ing these  materials  in  such  a  way  as  to  enable 
the  child  to  take  the  initiative  in  determining  his 

1  This  does  not  imply  that  there  is  not  much  valuable  material 
for  the  child  in  the  practical  life  of  the  present. 


IN  ELEMENTARY  EDUCA TION          2$$ 

problems  and  methods  of  work.  In  addition  to 
this  the  text-book  should  present  typical  racial 
experiences  that  afford  an  opportunity  for  the 
child  to  grasp  a  broader  significance  of  his  own 
acts.  In  the  earlier  stages,  before  differentiation 
of  interests  becomes  strong,  such  materials  rep- 
resent literature,  history,  science,  arithmetic, 
reading,  language,  construction,  art,  and  play  — 
all  in  one.  As  the  child's  interests  begin  to  differ- 
entiate there  is  a  need  of  a  corresponding  differ- 
entiation in  subject-matter. 

Arithmetic,  which  at  first  is  merely  one  phase 
of  experience,  comes  more  nearly  to  represent 
an  interest  in  itself;  but  for  a  long  time  it  should 
not  be  divorced  from  the  content  of  life  which 
gave  rise  to  it.  It  is  true  that  arithmetic  has  a 
content  of  its  own,  but  it  is  also  true  that  not  until 
the  elementary  period  of  education  is  passed 
does  this  content  appeal  to  the  ordinary  child  in 
such  a  way  as  to  make  the  experience  gained  by 
such  an  isolated  activity  of  any  great  educational 
significance.  Till  such  a  stage  is  reached  the 
text-books  used  should  be  of  such  a  scope  as  to 
include  the  subject-matter  out  of  which  problems 
of  the  various  types  arose.  It  may  well  be  left 
to  the  text-book  in  industrial  history  to  furnish  a 
more  complete  account  of  such  situations  ;  enough 
should  be  included  in  the  text  in  arithmetic  to 
insure  an  easy  connection  between  the  technique 


256  THE  PLACE  OF  INDUSTRIES 

of  the  problem  and  the  experience  of  which  it  is 
but  a  phase.  Only  when  presented  in  relation  to 
the  industrial  activities  of  which  it  is  a  phase  is 
there  an  excuse  for  the  introduction  of  an  obso- 
lete method  of  commercial  transaction  in  our 
text-books  in  arithmetic  ;  only  when  in  such  re- 
lations is  it  possible  for  it  to  become  an  experi- 
ence of  value  to  the  child.  When  introduced  in 
such  connections,  when  its  function  as  an  instru- 
ment of  life  under  certain  conditions  is  evident, 
its  introduction  into  the  course  of  study  is  justi- 
fied on  the  same  ground  as  the  introduction  of 
an  obsolete  industrial  process. 

That  which  is  vital  in  the  past  lives  on  through- 
out all  time,  but  its  function  appears  to  change. 
That  which  ministers  to  the  physical  needs  of 
one  age  is  significant  with  reference  to  the  intel- 
lectual and  spiritual  needs  of  succeeding  ages. 
This  should  not  be  construed  to  mean  that  that 
which  ministers  to  physical  needs  is  not  capable 
of  ministering  to  the  higher  needs  at  the  same 
time.  It  is.  The  fact  that  the  satisfaction  of 
material  needs  occupies  so  large  a  field  of  con- 
sciousness tends  to  obscure  other  results  of  the 
industrial  process.  Obsolete  processes  are  more 
significant  in  the  education  of  the  child  than 
modern  ones,  not  because  they  are  obsolete,  but 
because  they  represent  a  technique  more  nearly 
adapted  to  the  ability  of  the  child.  A  conscious 


IN  ELEMENTAR  Y  ED  UCA  TION 

recognition  of  the  values  that  are  implicit  in  in- 
dustrial processes  will  do  much  to  multiply  their 
power.  What  the  simple  obsolete  processes  are 
to  the  child,  modern  complicated  ones  should  be 
to  each  and  every  worker  who  participates  in  the 
process. 

On  this  ground  the  place  of  the  industrial  ac- 
tivities of  the  past  in  education  is  limited  only 
by  our  ability  to  appropriate  these  activities  to 
higher  purposes.  To  pave  the  way  to  a  more 
easy  appropriation  of  such  resources  and  agen- 
cies in  the  cause  of  education  is  an  ideal  of  such 
potency  as  to  transform  the  prolonged  work 
necessary  to  the  realization  of  even  a  small  por- 
tion of  the  field  into  the  character  of  play. 

What  is  true  of  arithmetic  is  also  true  of  sci- 
ence, art,  manual  training,1  and,  in  short,  of  each 
subject  of  study  that  has  a  legitimate  place  in 
elementary  education.  It  must  not  be  forgotten 
that  this  entire  period  is  pre-eminently  an  expe- 
rience stage.  The  success  of  the  later  differ- 
entiated activities  depends  largely  upon  the 
maintenance  of  such  conditions  as  will  insure  a 
full  use  of  the  activities  characteristic  of  the  suc- 
cessive stages.  Only  when  such  conditions  are 

•In  this  connection  the  reader  may  be  interested  in  "  The 
Place  of  Manual  Training  in  the  Elementary  School,"  by  JOHN 
DEWEY,  Manual  Training  Magazine,  Vol.  IT,  p.  193,  and  "  The 
Thought  Side  of  Manual  Training,"  by  ARTHUR  W.  RICHARDS, 
Ibid.,  Vol.  Ill,  p.  61. 


258  THE  PLACE  OF  INDUSTRIES 

secured  is  it  possible  to  transform  and  preserve 
the  emotional  attitudes,  which  are  significant  in 
some  form  throughout  life.  Only  under  such 
conditions  is  it  possible  for  the  child  to  acquire 
a  broad,  rich,  and  vital  experience  sufficiently 
deep-rooted  to  furnish  the  impulse  to  the  many- 
sided  interests  of  maturer  years. 

The  fact  that  so  little  attention  has  been  given 
in  this  place  to  the  selection  of  simple  activities 
from  modern  life  for  purposes  of  education, 
should  not  be  interpreted  as  a  failure  to  recog- 
nize their  educative  value.  There  need  be  no 
conflict  between  that  idea  and  the  one  here  em- 
phasized. Emphasis  is  placed  upon  the  evolu- 
tionary aspect,  because  it  is  believed  that  we  can 
know  what  we  are  only  by  knowing  what  we 
have  been.  It  is  because  this  method  reveals 
the  principle  of  growth  so  clearly  that  even  the 
child  can  appreciate  it,  that  it  deserves  the  place 
in  education  which  we  have  assigned  to  it.  As 
this  principle  comes  to  stand  out  more  and  more 
clearly,  and  as  the  materials  for  the  enrichment 
of  the  child's  activities  are  sought  from  parallel 
phases  in  contemporary  life,  as  well  as  in  the 
past,  there  is  introduced  into  what  otherwise 
might  be  a  mass  of  confused  ideas  regarding  the 
condition  of  contemporary  life  a  principle  of  or- 
der, by  means  of  "which  it  is  possible  to  place  the 
various  peoples  with  reference  to  the  forces 


IN  ELEMENTARY  EDUCA  TION          259 

that  have  been  potent  in  determining  their  stage 
of  culture. 

The  objection  sometimes  urged  that  it  is  diffi- 
cult for  the  child  to  picture  conditions  far  removed 
in  space  and  time  has  no  foundation.  When  we 
pass  beyond  the  limits  of  sense  perception,  it 
makes  no  difference  to  the  child,  for  several 
years,  from  what  age  the  subject  is  drawn,  pro- 
vided that  it  represent  an  experience  of  a  type 
similar  to  his  own  emotional  attitudes.  Not  until 
the  transition  from  infancy  to  childhood  has  been 
made  are  space  and  time  important  factors  in 
determining  the  source  from  which  the  materi- 
als for  the  enrichment  of  the  child's  experience 
should  be  drawn.  At  that  time  his  attitude 
toward  the  objective  world  is  such  as  to  make 
them  more  important  factors  ;  but  at  no  time 
during  the  elementary-school  period  does  inter- 
est in  space  and  time  assume  such  importance 
as  to  nullify  the  principle  that  finds  recognition 
in  the  presentation  of  such  problems  and  materi- 
als as  satisfy  the  spontaneous  activities  of  the 
period. 

Practical  activity  which  is  an  expression  of  the 
child's  interests  and  capacities,  socialized  by 
racial  experience,  is  not  only  the  best  means, 
but  the  only  means  thus  far  discovered  by 
which  the  child  can  organize  the  subject-matter 
of  education.  It  finds  its  justification  in  the  race 


260  THE  PLACE  OF  INDUSTRIES 

parallel,  in  the  fact  that  it  is  the  way  the  child 
learns  before  he  comes  to  school,  the  way  he  can 
lay  the  best  basis  for  the  later  activities  of  life, 
and  the  way  he  will  continue  to  learn  after  the 
walls  of  the  schoolroom  are  left  behind.  It  is  a 
superficial  treatment  of  the  question  which  gives 
the  impression  that  it  is  a  radical  departure  in 
education.  A  closer  examination  reveals  the  fact 
that  it  is  much  more  conservative  than  methods 
in  common  use.  They  represent  the  radical  de- 
parture from  the  path  marked  out  by  human 
experience.  This  method  would  conserve  what 
is  best  in  the  past ;  it  would  build  upon  it ;  it 
would  lay  hold  of  our  social  inheritance  in  such 
a  way  as  to  enable  the  child  to  reconcile  the  past 
with  the  present  and  to  know  himself  and  his 
place  in  the  world. 


INDEX 


ACHIEVEMENTS  OF  MANKIND,  14-59, 
244-7;  of  early  infancy,  105. 

ACTIVITY:  significance  of  industrial 
activity  to  the  race,  40-59,  64-90, 
244-9;  racial  activity  as  a  means  of 
interpreting  the  child's  attitudes 
(see  Attitudes);  racial  activity  as  a 
means  of  socializing  the  child,  6-12, 
122-6,  148,  158-70,  246;  forms  of 
the  child's  activity,  91-6  (see  also 
Construction,  Dramatization,  Enter- 
tainments, Exhibitions,  Experimen- 
tation, Exploitation,  Illustration, 
Instincts,  Observation,  Play,  Work, 
Workmanship  instinct);  its  rela- 
tion to  environment,  104-13,  244 
(see  also  Environment). 

ADVANCE  IN  CULTURE,  9. 

AFRICA,  NORTHERN,  its  transition  from 
barbarism  to  civilization,  52. 

AGE:  of  fear,  140;  of  combat,  140;  of 
the  chase,  140;  of  metals,  44-8; 
polished  stone,  31;  of  drill,  156  (see 
also  Epoch,  Stage). 

AGRICULTURAL  STAGE:  origin  of  agri- 
culture, 40;  terrace  gardens,  40; 
why  man  developed  the  work  begun 
by  woman,  41;  effect  of  man's 
superior  technological  skill,  40,  41; 
educational  value,  41-3;  beginnings 
of  fortification,  41,  42;  why  the 
products  of  agricultural  activity  are 
prized  more  highly  than  products 
of  previous  activities,  42;  demands 
made  by  agriculture  upon  mind 
and  body,  42,  43;  character  of 
problems,  42,  43,  80;  significance  of 
agricultural  festivals,  43,  80,  81; 
religion  as  a  means  of  regulating 
agricultural  activities,  43;  advan- 
tages of  agricultural  life,  43;  relation 
of  agriculture  to  slavery,  43,  8 1,  82; 
agricultural  life  contrasted  with 
pastoral  life,  42,  43,  82;  agriculture 
gives  stability  to  political  organiza- 
tions, 44;  the  decline  of  the  agricul- 
tural festival,  81;  its  materials  of 
value  in  elementary  education,  109, 
126-30,  165;  in  New  England, 
207-18. 

AMERICAN  BUREAU  OF  GEOGRAPHY, 
187. 

ANALYSIS,  its  relation  to  practical 
activity,  252,  253. 


ANIMAL  LIFE:  in  mid-Pleistocene 
period,  16;  in  the  late  Pleistocene 
period,  28,  29,  140;  in  the  post- 
glacial period,  31;  at  beginning  of 
pastoral  stage,  35,  36. 

ANIMALS:  change  in  animals  due  to 
man's  influence,  28,  35,  36,  140; 
extinct  forms,  16;  living  species,  16; 
domestication  of,  36;  as  pets,  36; 
as  engineers,  167;  in  the  schoolroom, 
1 10,  in;  migration  of,  16,  28,  31; 
in  colonial  period,  202,  209,  211 

212,  222. 

ANTHROPOLOGY  as  a  factor  in  ele- 
mentary education,  6  (see  also  Ac- 
tivity, Attitudes,  House  industries, 
Industry). 

APPLICATIONS,  EDUCATIONAL,  97-172. 

APPROVAL,  SOCIAL,  as  a  factor  in  the 
upbuilding  of  society,  26,  27,  65, 
83,  245,  246. 

ARCHITECTURE:  problems  presented 
by  primitive  architecture,  167;  law 
by  which  it  becomes  free,  247. 

AREA  REQUIRED  by  people  in  primi- 
tive stages  of  culture,  36,  43. 

ARROW  (see  Bow  and  Arrow). 

ART:  relation  to  industrial  activities, 
2, 13,  23-7,  34,  35,  37-9,  43,  73-82, 
93.»  245;  origin  of,  24;  of  hunting 
tribes,  26,  27;. of  fishing  tribes,  34; 
of  pastoral  tribes,  37-9,  73-9;  of 
agricultural  tribes,  43,  80,  81: 
not  differentiated  from  work  ana 
play,  73-9, 106;  tendency  to  become 
free,  38,  73,  74,  157;  relation  to  the 
crafts,  23-7;  form  influenced  by 
amount  of  leisure,  24;  a  socializing 
factor,  157,  158;  subjects  for,  201, 
224,  229. 

ASIA,  WESTERN,  its  transition  from 
barbarism  to  civilization,  52. 

ATTENTION:  the  savage  dislikes  the 
strain  of  attention,  70,  71;  of  savage 
compared  with  that  of  the  child, 
71,  72;  its  relation  to  the  character 
of  the  problem,  71,  80,  82,  83;  con- 
ditions for  securing.  82,  83. 

ATTITUDES,  PSYCHICAL:  their  origin, 
60-96;  remote  racial  activities  as  a 
factor  in  their  formation,  6 1,  70,  97, 
98;  influence  of  recent  racial  activi- 
ties, 61,  87,  98,  244,  245;  physical 
heredity,  15,  61,  63,  87;  social  he- 


261 


262 


INDEX 


redity,  15,  61.  87,  88,  08;  individual 
variations,  60,  61;  value  of  animal 
psychology  in  the  study  of  the  child, 

6 1,  62,  97;  value  of  racial  activities, 
07,  98,  244,  245;  liability  to  error 
in  the  interpretation  of,  62;  impor- 
tance of  the  body  in  the  study  of 
instincts,  63;  due  to  physiological 
causes,   63;   bound  up  with  most 
fundamental  activities  of  the  race, 
64;  premium  placed  upon  most  es- 
sential activities,  64;  transformation 
of,  98?   158;  reduction  of,  61.  98, 
248;    importance  of  continuity  in 
biological    function    in    explaining, 

62,  97;  how  socialized  (see  Enrich- 
ment  of   experience)',   summarized 
statements  concerning,  244-50  (see 
also  Activity). 

AUROCHS  in  western  Europe  during 
the  Pleistocene  period,  16. 

BEDROOMS,  COLONIAL,  232,  233. 

BEDSTEADS,  COLONIAL,  232. 

BOASTING,  significance  of,  27. 

BOATS:  origin,  150;  their  evolution, 
148,  150-2;  methods  of  construc- 
tion, 151,  152;  origin  of  the  keel, 
150;  the  raft,  151;  the  catamaran, 
151;  the  double  canoe,  151;  the 
outrigger,  152;  relation  of  boats  to 
environment,  152;  educational  value 
of  the  study  of,  148,  150-2;  of  the 
Pilgrims,  194,  220. 

BOAS,  FRANZ:  statement  regarding 
the  brain  capacity  of  the  savage,  18. 

BODY:  uses  of  man's  body,  19,  20;  in 
relation  to  principles  of  invention, 

20,  2i-,  in  relation  to  motive  power, 

21,  153;  in  relation  to  tools,  20,  32, 
33 1  134-4°.  I49i  va  relation  to  me- 
chanical principles  and  machines, 
21,  153,  154,  170,  171;  in  relation 
to  rhythm,  21,  25,  34,  72,  76-8,  119, 
120;  in  relation  to  the  fine  arts,  21; 
in  relation  to  language,  19;  in  rela- 
tion to  the  meter  of  poetry,  19;  in 
relation  to  emotional  attitudes,  63 
(see  also  Attitudes);  burden  placed 
upon  the  body  in  primitive  stages  of 
developement,  19,  22,  65;  energy  of 
the   body    supplemented    by    tools 
and  the  application  of  other  forms 
of  motive  power,  22,  32,  34,  36,  42, 
45,  47,  56-8,  64,  84,  93,  J33-S4, 246. 

BOOKS,  a  means  not  an  end,  197,  242. 

Bow  AND  ARROW:  evolution  of,  141-8; 
educational  value  of  the  problems 
involved,  141-8. 

BUCHER,  CARL:  quoted  regarding 
handicrafts,  37,  55,  56;  quoted 
regarding  the  significance  of  ele- 
ments of  culture,  59;  his  position 


regarding  the  influence  of  industry 
upon  art  an  extreme  on,  78;  quoted 
regarding  the  house  industries,  95, 
103. 

BUFFON,  quoted  regarding  the  domesti- 
cation of  the  wild  duck,  33. 

BUILDING-BLOCKS,  114,  184. 

BRAIN  OF  THE  SAVAGE,  18. 

BRYANT,  GEORGE  H.,  statement  re- 
garding the  use  of  obsolete  tools 
and  processes  criticized,  95. 

B URGES,  quoted  regarding  the  use  of 
machinery,  58. 

BYTNGTON,  Puritans  in  England  and 
New  England,  quoted,  216. 

CANDLE-MAKING,  data  for  children's 
work  in,  230-41. 

CAPTIVES  IN  WAR  ENSLAVED,  43. 

CATAMARAN,  origin  of,  151. 

CATHEDRALS,  169. 

CAVE-BEAR,  16,  19. 

CAVE-LION,  16. 

CAVES,  18. 

CHIEF,  INDUSTRIAL,  23,  34,  45,  46, 82. 

CHILD:  lives  an  embryonic  life,  89; 
character  of  his  motives,  89;  atti- 
tudes of  the  child  a  means  of  recon- 
ciliation between  the  past  and  the 
present,  89,  90;  needs  to  participate 
in  fundamental  activities,  oo;  has 
not  been  studied  with  sufficient  care, 
00,251  (see  also  Activity,  Attitude, 
Applications,  Body). 

CHILDHOOD:  physical  attitudes,  155-9; 
physical  co-ordinations,  155,  156; 
differentiation  between  work  and 
play  more  marked  than  before, 
156.  157;  function  of  play,  157; 
dominant  interests,  158,  159;  how 
attitudes  may  be  utilized,  158-72; 
attitude  toward  work,  157;  function 
of  art,  161;  function  of  science,  161; 
use  of  the  house  industries,  161,  162; 
individual  vs.  co-operative  activity, 
162,  163;  regulation  of  labor,  162, 
163;  significance  of  the  past  with 
reference  to  the  present,  163;  signifi- 
cance of  public  works,  167,  168; 
place  of  primitive  engineering 
architecture,  and  mechanics,  153-5 
166-72;  use  of  the  handicrafts,  168, 
169;  its  key  to  the  factory  system 
170-2. 

CHIMNEYS,  COLONIAL,  232,  235,  236. 

CHURNING  RHYME,  76. 

CIRCUIT,  ORGANIC,  82,  86,  91,  108 
(see  also  Completion  of  a  situation, 
demand  for). 

CITY-STATE:  significance  of,  51-3; 
problems  it  presents  to  the  child, 
164,  165,  167,  168. 

CIVILIZATION:    foundation    of,    164, 


INDEX 


263 


165  (see  also  Industry);  its  formu- 
lated results  of  little  educational 
value,  88,  180. 

CLASSIFICATION:  cannot  represent  the 
whole  nature  of  the  child,  60,  61; 
of  industrial  epochs,  14, 15;  of  stages 
of  mental  development,  97-172. 

CLAY,  177,  178,  241. 

CLIMATE:  in  mid-Pleistocene  period, 
16;  in  late  Pleistocene  period,  28; 
in  post-glacial  period,  31. 

CLODD,  EDWARD,  reference  to  con- 
cerning origin  of  tools,  134. 

CLOTHING:  need  of  clothing  a  motive 
for  the  development  of  sciences  and 
arts,  25;  child's  interest  in  clothing, 
115,  116;  self-exhibitive  instinct, 
115;  burden  placed  upon  the  body 
in  maintaining  necessary  tempera- 
ture before  the  use  of  clothing,  22 
(see  also  Sewing,  Textiles). 

COLLECTIONS,  181,  191,  192. 

COLONIZATION,  166. 

COLOR,  230. 

COMMERCE:  growth  of,  51  168;  Phoe- 
nician, 165;  colonial,  219,  220  (see 
also  Trade). 

COMPASS,  MARINER'S,  invention  of  99. 

COMPLETION  OF  A  SITUATION,  demand 
for,  91-3, 171,  246,  248. 

COMTE,  AUGUST,  quoted  regarding 
work  as  a  civic  function,  85. 

CONFLICT  INTEREST:  in  hunting  and 
fishing  stages,  22-4,  34,  69;  satis- 
fied by  means  of  war  in  the  pastoral 
stage,  37-9;  reinforced  by  the  festi- 
val and  by  warfare  in  the  agricul- 
tural stage,  43,  80,  81;  gradually 
restricted  to  narrower  fields,  94,.95; 
a  permanent  possession  of  mankind, 

95- 

CONSTRUCTION:  its  place  in  elementary 
education,  91,  92 »  171;  how  mani- 
fest in  the  period  of  infancy,  113-16; 
the  child  should  not  be  obliged  to 
forego  the  educational  opportunity 
of  providing  some  of  the  materials 
for,  108-13,  126,  148,  164;  its  rela- 
tion to  destruction,  30;  origin  of  atti- 
tude underlying  construction,  67-84; 
supplies  need  of  the  child,  157-61, 
248;  of  public  works,  167;  its  rela- 
tion to  the  sciences  and  arts,  247 
(see  also  Art,  Industry,  Science). 

CONSTRUCTIVE  WORK,  suggestions  for, 
199,  205-7,  212,  222-5. 

CONSUMPTION:  of  crops  before  they 
are  ready  for  the  harvest,  42;  pro- 
duction and  consumption  not  origi- 
nally separated  hi  time,  67-70; 
round  of  activities  from  production 
to  consumption  in  the  handicraft 
period,  84;  the  process  of  produc- 


tion and  consumption  represent  a 
complete  situation,  91. 

CONTINUITY:  in  biological  function, 
62,  97;  in  mental  attitude,  62,  97. 

CONVERSATION:  as  a  means  of  reliev- 
ing monotonous  work,  72;  the  spon- 
taneous conversation  of  children 
while  engaged  in  rhythmical  work, 
78,  79. 

COOKING:  its  educational  value,  114, 
163,  164;  without  an  equipment, 
181;  colonial  methods,  237,  238. 

COOKING  UTENSILS,  236. 

CO-OPERATION:  beginnings  of,  23-6, 
29;  by  means  of  rhythm,  24,  25,  34, 
72.  78-80,  94,  119-21,  162;  of  work- 
ers in  the  educational  field,  252-4. 

CO-ORDINATIONS:  physical,  08,  105, 
*33»  J55t  r56;  of  the  hunter  sup- 
plied the  basis  of  the  skill  he  devel- 
oped in  drawing  and  carving,  26; 
relation  of  co-ordinations  used  in 
art  to  those  developed  by  industrial 
activities,  26,  34,  38,  39,  72,  74-81; 
premium  placed  upon  the  develop- 
ment of  necessary  co-ordinations, 
81,  88;  the  bow  and  arrow  as  a 
means  of  co-ordinating  mind  and 
body,  141. 

COURSE  OF  STUDY  (see  Curriculum). 

CRAFTS:  represent  particular  divisions 
of  the  industrial  process,  84;  supply 
skill  for  the  development  of  art  (see 
Art,  Co-ordinations);  educational 
significance  of  (see  Handicraft  sys- 
tem). 

CURIOSITY  A  NECESSARY  TRAIT,  23. 

CURRICULUM  :  overloaded,  5;  additions, 
by  the  process  of  aggregation,  5; 
materials  for,  97-172,  192-241, 
253-7. 

GUSHING,  FRANK  HAMILTON,  quoted 
regarding  the  arrow,  143. 

DANCE:  origin  of,  34;  disapproval  of 
one  who  made  a  mistake  in  the 
dance,  34;  the  professional  dancer 
emerges,  38;  pantomimic  dances 
preserved  in  folklore,  75. 

DARWIN,  CHARLES,  his  position  re- 
garding animal  psychology,  6 1,  62. 

DAWKINS,  BOYD,  an  authority  on 
animal  life  in  the  Pleistocene  period, 
16. 

DECORATION:  origin  of,   25;   signifi-  v 
cance,  25,  27;  relation  to  the  work- 
manship instinct,  26,  27. 

DEMAND  FOR  LITERATURE  OF  PRE- 
HISTORIC LIFE,  10,  12. 

DEPENDENCE,  INDUSTRIAL  :  in  pastoral 
stage,  39, 40;  a  factor  in  the  develop- 
ment of  idea  of  social  dependence, 
40. 


264 


INDEX 


DESIGNS,  children's  original,  228,  229. 

DEVELOPMENT:  industrial,  14-59;  psy- 
chical, 60-96;  of  the  child,  97-172. 

DEVICES:  of  hunter,  25-9  73,  133-54; 
of  fisher,  32;  to  facilitate  trade,  150- 
2, 167  (see  also  Inventions). 

DEWEY.  JOHN,  referred  to,  106,  156, 
257- 

DIFFERENTIATION  OF  SCIENCES  AND 
ARTS  from  industrial  activity,  2, 


23-7,  34,  38,  73-8i,  85-7,  93,  106, 
244  (see  also  Art,  Industry, 
Science). 


DIVISION  OF  LABOR:  beginnings  of, 
24,  47,  51;  minute  division,  55-8 
(see  also  Differentiation,  Labor). 

DOG  DOMESTICATED  by  early  hunting 
and  fishing  tribes,  32. 

DOMESTICATION  OF  ANIMALS,  35-40. 

DOYLE,  English  Colonies  in  America, 
quoted,  194,  196. 

DRAKE,  The  Making  of  New  England, 
quoted,  195. 

DRAMATIZATION,  its  place  in  elemen- 
tary education,  117-19, 124, 125,201 
(see  also  Illustration,  Play). 

DRAWING:  origin  of,  25;  suggestions 
for  children's  work  in,  200,  201. 

DRESS:  origin  of,  25;  in  relation  to 
child's  constructive  activities,  115, 
116  (see  also  Clothing). 

DWELLINGS,  COLONIAL,  183, 184,  198, 
237- 

DYEING,  179,  180,  229,  230. 

EARLE,  MRS.  ALICE  MORSE,  quoted, 
211,230,239- 

ECONOMISTS  not  the  only  ones  inter- 
ested in  the  industrial  situation,  4. 

ECONOMY:  domestic,  16-54;  town, 
54-6;  national,  56-^). 

EDUCATION:  in  ancient  times,  3;  in 
mediaeval  times,  3,  4;  in  modern 
times,  4;  consequences  of  neglect  to 
provide  for  practical  activities,  4; 
waste  in  present  educational  meth- 
ods, 9,  10,  180  (see  also  Activity, 
Applications,  Attitude,  Curriculum). 

ELECTRICITY  AS  A  MOTIVE  POWER,  58. 

EMERSON,  RALPH  WALDO,  quoted 
regarding  tools,  134. 

ENERGY  (see  Surplus  energy). 

ENGINEERING,  problems  in  primitive, 
166,  167. 

ENGINEERS,  animals  as,  167. 

ENRICHMENT  OF  EXPERIENCE,  109, 
122-55,  158. 

ENTERTAINMENTS,  school,  93. 

ENVIRONMENT:  a  factor  in  the  child's 
problems,  105-13,  125-7,  149,  167; 
how  it  takes  on  a  new  meaning,  126; 
its  relation  to  psychical  attitudes 
(see  Attitudes);  transient  vs.  perma- 


nent factor  in,  99,  TOO;  what  con- 
stitutes the  natural  and  the  social 
environment  of  the  child,  100-102; 
man's  relation  to,  16,  21,  23,  28  31, 
32,  35,  36,  41,  4.8,  90,  104,  146;  of 
man  in  mid-Pleistocene  period,  16 
(see  also  Exploitation,  Situation). 

EPOCHS:  industrial,  14-59;  psychical, 
60-96:  of  the  hand,  133;  of  the  tool, 
133;  classification  of  epochs  of  devel- 
opment in  the  child,  97-172. 

EQUIPMENTS:  methods  of  securing, 
173-92;  work  with  meager,  192-241. 

ESKIMO,  32,  147. 

EUROPE:  environment  of  western  in 
mid-Pleistocene  period,  16,  17; 
transition  from  barbarism  to  civili- 
zation, 52;  handicraft  system  in, 
54-6. 

EVOLUTION:  change  from  organic  to 
human,  17;  more  cumulative  results 
gamed  by  the  study  of  the  evolution 
of  one  race  than  by  study  of  diverse 
contemporary  races,  123,  258;  of 
the  boat,  149-52;  of  the  bow  and 
arrow,  141-8. 

EXCHANGE,  methods  of,  i,  187. 

EXCURSIONS,  180. 

EXHIBITIONS,  189,  190,  237,  238  (see 
also  Entertainments). 

EXPERIMENT,  149,  224. 

EXPERIMENTATION:  its  place  in  ele- 
mentary education,  92;  how  mani- 
fest in  period  of  infancy,  104-6; 
playful  experimentation  hi  pastoral 
stage,  74  (see  also  Activity,  Exploi- 
tation). 

EXPLOITATION:  how  manifest  in  the 
successive  stages  of  culture,  57,  64- 
7;  its  place  with  reference  to  other 
activities  of  life,  67;  of  the  child, 
105,  108-12,  127;  its  relation  to  the 
predatory  instinct,  51;  history  of, 
64-7. 

EXPLORATION,  166. 

EXPRESSION  (see  Activity). 

FACTORS:  bound  up  in  the  industrial 
process,  2,  12  (see  also  Art,  Differ- 
entiation, Industry,  Science);  tran- 
sient vs.  permanent,  99,  100. 

FACTORY  SYSTEM:  arose  in  response  to 
the  use  of  steam  as  a  motive  power, 


proper  use  of,  58;  educational  signifi- 
cance, 85,  86,  96,  169-72,  257. 

FAIRS,  51. 

FAMILY,  PATRIARCHAL,  spirit  of  rever- 
ence fostered  by,  39. 

FEAR  A  VIRTUE,  22. 

FESTIVAL:  origin  of,  43, 80;  decline  of. 


INDEX 


265 


87;  work  partaking  of  the  character 
of,  238-41. 

FEUDAL  SYSTEM:  the  transition  from 
barbarism  to  civilization,  53,  54; 
industrial  organization,  54  (see  also 
House  industries). 

FIELD  TRIPS,  180. 

FIRE:  significance  of  its  conquest,  23, 
24;  worship  of,  23;  man's  condition 
previous  to  the  use  of,*2. 

FIREPLACES,  236. 

FISHERIES,  study  of  colonial,  217,  220. 

FISHING  STAGE :  earliest  fishing  people; 
31;  environment,  31;  problems  in 
fowling  and  fishing,  32;  implements 
and  weapons,  325  deep-sea  fishing, 
34;  contrasted  with  hunting  stage, 
34;  regulation  of  industry,  34;  pro- 
gress in  industries  and  arts,  35; 
genesis  of  sea-lore,  35;  influence  of 
sea  and  sky  upon  man's  character, 
35- 

FISH-WEIRS,  32. 

FISKE,  U.  S.  History,  quoted,  214.  ^ 

FOLKLORE  reveals  much  concerning 
the  early  life  of  mankind,  75,  77. 

FOOD:  of  man  in  Pleistocene  period, 
22,  24,  28;  more  steady  supply  in 
the  fishing  than  in  the  hunting  stage, 
33.  34i  semi-domesticated  animals 
used  as  food  in  times  of  scarcity,  36; 
first  regular  supply  in  pastoral  stage, 
37;  how  protected  from  thoughtless 
members  of  clan,  42;  search  for 
food  a  stimulus  for  travel,  48;  a 
stimulus  for  exploitation  of  environ- 
ment, 64;  as  a  factor  in  the  child's 
interest  in  plants,  112;  not  a  strong 
factor  in  child's  interest  in  animals, 
no;  its  preparation  a  means  of 
education,  114, 163, 164;  significance 
of  the  change  of  seasons  in  relation 
to  the  food  supply  of  primitive  peo- 
ples, 128. 

FORCES  OPERATING  to  induce  man  to 
make  the  transition  from  the  pastoral 
to  the  agricultural  hie,  35-7   (see 
also  Surplus  energy). 
FORETHOUGHT,  developed  by  pastoral 
and  agricultural  life,  37,  42,  43,  129. 
FORTIFICATION  (see  Protection). 
FOWLING,  devices  used  in,  33. 
FURNITURE:  C9lonial,  231,  232;  data 
for  construction  of,  237, 

GAMES:  weaving,  75;  imitations  of 
serious  activities,  24,  25,  74,  75; 
hunting,  124;  trading,  131;  games 
played  for  the  sake  of  skill,  156  (see 
Art,  Play,  Rhythm). 

GARDENING,  180,  202,  209. 

GOVERNMENT:  municipal,  87;  how  the 
child  may  be  led  to  realize  the  need 
of,  129. 


GROUP:  individuality  fused  in  that  of 
the  group,  25;  disapproval  of,  34; 
political  groups.  40,  44;  the  relation 
of  the  child  to  the  group,  109;  signifi- 
cance of  larger  social  groups  in  the 
education  of  the  child,  122,  158, 164, 
249  (see  also  Public  Works);  (see 
also  Approval). 

GUNPOWDER,  invention  of,  99. 

HABITATIONS,  129. 

HAFTING,  139. 

HAMMER,  invention  of,  135-?' 

HANDICRAFT  SYSTEM:  rise  of,  54;  dis- 
tinguished from  the  wage  system, 
54;  characterized  by  a  breaking  up 
of  the  industrial  process,  55; 
significant  with  reference  to  the 
market,  55;  relation  to  travel  and 
transportation,  55;  its  proper  sphere 
today,  56;  application  of  wind  and 
water  as  a  motive  power  during  this 
period,  56;  inauguration  of  free 
labor,  56;  educational  significance 
of,  84,  95,  96  169;  problems  it  pre- 
sents of  value  in  the  period  of  child- 
hood, 168. 

HANDS:  used  in  locomotion,  19,  105; 
epoch  of  the  hand,  133. 

HANSEATIC- LEAGUE,  168. 

HARRIS,  W.  T.,  quoted  with  reference 
to  play,  117. 

HEREDITY:  physical,  15,  61,  63,  87 
(see  also  Activity,  Attitudes,  Body, 
Co-ordinations);  social,  15,  61,87 
88,  08,  247,  251  (see  also  Approval, 
Curriculum,  Self-exhibitive  instinct). 

HISTORY  AN  ORGANIC  PART  OF  PRESENT 

LIFE, 12. 

HOME  CANNOT  SUPPLY  INDUSTRIAL 
TRAINING,  5. 

HORN,  development  of,  79. 

HORNADAY,  W.  T.,  quoted  regarding 
bisons  as  makers  of  roads,  167. 

HOSPITALITY,  51. 

HOUSE  INDUSTRIES:  significant  with 
reference  to  the  clan  or  household, 
55,  84;  educational  significance  con- 
trasted with  that  of  handicrafts,  84, 
96;  as  modes  of  production,  96; 
value  in  childhood,  96,  161-8. 

HOUSES,  COLONIAL:  of  first  period, 
198-201,  206,  231-7. 

HOWE,  DANIEL  WAIT,  quoted,  210. 

HUNTING  STAGE:  earliest  records 
found,  16;  animal  life  in  western 
Europe  in  mid-Pleistocene  period, 
16;  climate,  15;  plant  life,  16; 
man  of  this  period,  16,  18,  19;  his 
superiority  over  the  animals  due  to 
what,  20;  danger  of  early  speciali- 
zation, 20;  food,  22;  fear  a  virtue, 
22;  little  surplus  energy  at  first,  22; 
relations  to  plants  and  animals,  23; 


266 


INDEX 


significance  of  the  conquest  of  fire, 
23,  24;  man  seeks  conflict,  24;  be- 
ginnings of  art,  24,  25;  hunting 
people  excel  in  representative  art, 
26;  arts  that  require  leisure  not  de- 
veloped, 26;  social  instincts,  and 
their  relation  to  formation  of  indus- 
trial habits,  26-8;  man's  influence 
upon  wild  animals,  28;  intellectual 
advance  of  the  period,  29,  30;  stren- 
uous life  of  the  time,  29;  not  so  cen- 
tralizing in  its  tendencies  as  the 
pastoral  life,  39;  educational  mate- 
rials it  presents,  123-6,  133-48. 

HUTCHINSON,  H.  N.,  referred  to  in 
connection  with  description  of  man 
of  earliest  period,  18. 

HUXLEY,  18. 

ILLUSTRATION:  its  place  in  elementary 
education,  92;  distinguished  from 
construction,  92;  opportunities  it 
presents  for  the  development  of 
technique,  92. 

IMPLEMENTS,  AGRICULTURAL,  212,213 
(see  Devices,  Inventions,  Tools, 
Weapons). 

IMPULSE  (see  Attitudes,  Instinct). 

INDUSTRIES  (see  Age  of  metals,  Agri- 
cultural stage,  City-state,  Factory 
system,  Feudal  system,  Fishing, 
Handicraft  system,  House  indus- 
tries, Hunting  stage,  Pastoral  stage, 
Trade,  Transportation,  Travel). 

INDUSTRY:  its  relations  to  sciences  and 
arts,  2,  13,  23-7,  34,  35,  37-9,  43, 
73, 8a,  93,  242;  its  relation  to  society, 
2,  3,  5,  1^759;  a  means  of  recon- 
ciling conflicting  factors  in  the  cur- 
riculum, 5,  104-72;  its  relation  to 
psychical  attitudes,  60-96. 

INFANCY,  stage  of:  psychical  attitudes, 
104-6;  physical  co-ordinations,  105, 
116;  achievements  of  early  infancy, 
105;  later  infancy  the  play  period; 
106;  music  as  a  means  of  regulating 
activity,  119-21;  use  of  rhythm, 
119-21. 

INSTINCT  (see  Approval,  Attitudes, 
Conflict  interest,  Exploitation,  Self- 
exhibitive  instinct,  Workmanship 
instinct). 

INTEREST,  CHILD'S:  in  animals,  110, 
in;  in  plants,  112;  in  topographical 
features,  112,  126;  in  natural  phe- 
nomena, 112;  in  construction,  113- 
16;  in  food,  110-14;  in  household 
occupations,  114;  in  shelter,  114; 
in  clothing,  115,  116;  in  technique, 
156;  in  work,  114,  157;  in  play,  157 
(see  Play);  in  art,  157,  158;  in  met- 
als, 131;  in  tools,  134-52,  170;  in 
mechanics,  153-5,  171;  in  problems 


of  ancient  civilizations,  164,  165;  in 
public  works,  167. 

INVENTION:  in  hunting  stage,  20-9, 
64,  65,  134-8;  in  fishing  stage,  32-5, 
66,  148-52;  in  pastoral  stage,  36-9, 
66,  73-7;  in  agricultural  stage,  41-4, 
66,  80;  in  age  of  metals,  45-7,  66; 
in  period  of  the  early  development 
of  travel,  trade,  and  transportation, 
49-51,  66,>  148-52;  during  handi- 
craft period,  55,  56;  during  period 
of  national  economy,  56-8,  84;  of 
the  printing-press,  gunpowder,  and 
the  mariner  s  compass,  9p;  why 
some  inventions  are  abortive,  99; 
of  the  child,  82-93. 

ISOLATION  OF  THE  PAST  PREVENTED, 

II,  12. 

KITCHEN,  233-5. 

KITCHEN  MIDDENS,  31. 

KNIFE,  invention  and  uses  of,  138-40. 

KNITTING  RHYMES,  75,  77,  78. 

LABOR:  a  personal  occupation,  84;  a 
civic  function,  84;  a  social  function, 
84;  free,  71-3, 80-83, 120, 121;  slave, 
43, 82-4;  how  labor  became  irksome, 
66-95,  246;  effect  of  a  minute  divis- 
ion of  labor,  84-7,  246. 

LEISURE,  due  to  better  means  of  pro- 
tection and  acquisition  of  food,  22, 
24,  28,  33  34,  37;  relation  to  the 
development  of  different  forms  of 
art,  26,  37-9,  74  (see  Art,  Surplus 
energy). 

LEVER,  primitive  form  of,  154. 

LIGHTING  colonial  methods  of,  239, 
240. 

LIMITATIONS:  in  dealing  with  a  large 
problem,  13;  of  materials  used  in 
of 


construction,  30,  70, 
143,  146-8,  152,  167. 

LOEB,  JACQUES:  statement  regarding 
traits  due  to  heredity,  63;  his 
method  of  demonstrating  the  change 
in  the  instincts  of  lower  forms  of 
life,  251, 

LOOM,  construction  of,  227. 

Machairodus  lalidenst  16,  28. 
MACHINE,  origin  of,  21,  153, 154, 170, 

171    (see    also    Body,    Machinery, 

Mechanical  principles,  Tools). 
MACHINERY:  and  the  factory  system, 

i,  4,  81,  84,  107,  168;  unwillingness 

to  use,  58;  proper  use  of,  58  (see 

also  Factory  system). 
MALLERY,    GARRICK,    quoted    with 

regard  to  pantomime,  118. 
MANUAL  TRAINING,  original  impulse 

came  from  house  industries.  95. 
MANUFACTURE,  224-39  (see  Industry. 

Work,  Workmanship  instinct). 


INDEX 


267 


MARKET  :  local,  55;  national  and  inter- 
national, 55;  origin  of,  51,  131. 

MASON  OTIS  TUFTON,  quoted  and 
referred  to,  20,  134,  146,  147,  155, 
229. 

MATERIALS:  for  practical  activities, 
173-92  (see  also  Exploitation, 
Limitation);  for  text-books  (see 
Curriculum,  Enrichment  of  experi- 
ence). 

MEASUREMENT:  original  units  fur- 
nished by  the  body,  21,  143;  need 
of  more  precise  standards,  49, 131. 

MECHANICAL  PRINCIPLES,  153, 154. 

MEETING-HOUSE,  COLONIAL,  215. 

MEMORY,  ASSOCIATIVE,  20,  28. 

METALLURGY,  44,  45,  130. 

METALS,  AGE  OF:  first  use  of,  44; 
probable  origin  of  smelting,  45, 
46;  experience  which  man  brought 
to  the  processes  of  metallurgy,  45; 
significance  of  myths  regarding 
metal  workers,  46;  significance  of 
the  use  of  metals,  47;  educational 
opportunities  presented  by  the 
history  of  this  age,  129,  130. 

METHODS  (see  Process,  educational). 

MIGRATIONS  OF  ANIMALS,  16,  28,  48, 
128. 

MILLING,  child's  study  of,  203-5. 

MIND,  increasing  demand  for  use  of, 
20,  25,  28,  34,  36,  37,  42-6,  49,  56, 
57,  7i,  80,  81,  84-7- 

MONTESQUIEU,  51. 

MOTIVE,  preparations  as  a  motive  in 
education,  89. 

MOTIVE  POWER:  human  muscles,  21, 
93»  io5i  153;  animal,  55,  56,  82, 
204;  wind  and  water,  56,  83,  204; 
steam,  56-8;  electricity,  58;  a 
problem  in  transportation,  51; 
mode  of  application  patterned  after 
human  movements,  21,  153,  154, 
170,  171. 

MUSEUM,  INDUSTRIAL,  178,  191. 

Music:  as  a  means  of  regulating 
activity,  43,  82,  83,  119-21-,  becomes 
more  free  in  pastoral  stage,  38,  247. 

MUSICAL  INSTRUMENTS,  subservient  to 
practical  activity,  38,  79. 

MYTHS,  genesis  of,  35. 

NEED:  destruction  significant  as  a 
response  to  a  social  need,  30; 
utilitarian,  22-6  (see  also  Food); 
of  artificial  stimulus  to  sustain 
activity,  43,  70  (see  also  Conversa- 
tion, Dance,  Festival,  Rhythm); 
social  need  in  relation  to  invention, 
26,  99;  of  child  (see  Attitudes. 
Enrichment,  Interest). 

OBSERVATION:  its  place  in  elementary 
education,  92  (see  also  Exploitation). 


OCCUPATION  (see  Activity,  Industry). 
OPTIONAL  WORK,  168. 
ORGANIZATION:    of    labor    (see    also 

Regulation  of  industry,  Rhythm); 

political  and  social,  40,  44,  217,  218 

230. 

ORNAMENT,  significance  of,  25. 
OUTRIGGER,  152. 
OVENS,  130. 

PALEONTOLOGY,  16. 

PALFREY,  JOHN  GRAHAM,  quoted,  194, 
195,  202. 

PANTOMIME,  75,  118  (see  also  Art, 
Dance,  Dramatization). 

PASTORAL  STAGE:  how  transition  was 
made  from  hunting  and  fishing  to 
the  pastoral  life,  35;  sympathetic 
relations  established,  37;  smaller 
area  needed,  37:  new  problems 
demand  forethought,  37;  how  emo- 
tional reactions  are  secured,  37,  38; 
art,  38;  development  of  textile  indus- 
tries, 38;  war,  38;  humanizing  ele- 
ment developed,  39;  industrial 
dependence  a  factor  in  social  depend- 
ence, 39,  40;  compared  with  agri- 
cultural stage,  40;  predatory  instinct 
strengthened,  39;  educational  value 
of,  39-44,  no,  in,  128. 

PICTURES:  easily  secured,  183;  ar- 
rangement and  use  of,  188,  189, 

212. 

PILE-DWELLINGS,  41. 

PILGRIMS,  suggestions  for  study  of 
settlement  of,  192-241. 

PLANT  LIFE  IN  PLEISTOCENE  PERIOD, 
17. 

PLANTS:  cannot  be  depended  upon 
to  reproduce  themselves,  42 ;  culti- 
vation of,  40-44;  child's  interest  in, 
1 10-12  (see  also  Agricultural  stage). 

PLAY:  the  play  period  of  the  race,  73; 
the  play  period  of  the  child,  106; 
dramatic  play,  117,  118;  hunting 
plays  j  124;  socializing  function  of, 
157;  its  relation  to  work,  122,  157. 
158;  a  force  that  should  be  utilized 
in  education  (see  Education,  Waste 
in  the  educational  process). 

PLEASURE:  from  the  exercise  of  bodily 
power,  03;  from  the  augmentation 
or  transformation  of  muscular  power, 
93- 

PLEISTOCENE  PERIOD  16,  18  28,  31, 
35,67..  . 

POETRY,  its  relation  to  practical  activ- 
ity, 19,  35,  177  (see  also  Rhymes). 

POWELL,  J.  W.,  quoted  with  reference 
to  the  city-state,  52. 

PRINCIPLES:  of  mechanics,  153,  154; 
the  weight,  153;  the  elastic  spring, 
154;  the  inclined  plane,  154;  the 


268 


INDEX 


wedge,  154;  the  lever,  154;  the  sled, 
154;  the  roller,  154;  the  pulley,  154; 
the  wheel  and  axle,  154;  twisting, 
shrinking, and  clamping  devices,  154; 
the  screw?  154;  of  construction,  167; 
of  invention,  20,  21;  of  education, 
9,  97-104;  of  rank,  52. 

PRINTING,  invention  of,  99. 

PROBLEM  :  statement  of  problems  to  be 
considered,  7-13,  173;  child's  prob- 
lems, ii,  105,  106,  159,  160  (see 
also  Activities,  Attitudes,  Stages  of 
development);  of  socializing  child's 
instincts,  122,  126,  160,  161,  166-8 
(see  also  Curriculum,  Enrichment 
of  experience);  of  hunting  stage, 
22-9,  71,  72,  147;  of  fishing  stage, 
34,  140-52;  of  pastoral  stage,  36-8, 
81,  82;  of  agricultural  people,  41-3, 
80-82 ;  of  metal  workers,  45, 46,  130 ; 
of  travel  and  trade,  49,  51,  149-52 , 
165-7;  unsettled  problems,  57,  60, 
61, 251. 

PROCESS :  educational  (see  Education); 
place  of  obsolete  industrial  processes, 
164,  168,  169,  256,  257  (see  also 
Activity,  Industry). 

PROTECTION:  of  crops,  42;  from  ani- 
mals, 41;  from  enemies,  41,  42  (see 
also  Fortification,  Pile-dwellings, 
Taboo,  War). 

PROWESS,  68. 

PUBLIC  WORKS,  167,  168,  249. 

RACE  PARALLEL  must  not  be  applied 
literally,  134  (see  also  Principles  of 
education). 

RAFTS,  151. 

REACTIONS,  EMOTIONAL:  in  hunting 
stage,  24-7,  46,  47,  63-5,  71,  72;  in 
fishing,  34,  35;  in  pastoral  stage, 
38,  73-9,  82;  in  agricultural  stage, 
43, 80  (see  also  Art,  Festivals,  Music, 
Rhythm). 

REFLECTION,  not  adapted  to  serve  the 
needs  of  the  savage,  22,  71. 

REFLEXES,  80  (see  also  Attitudes, 
Body,  Co-ordinations,  Instincts). 

REGULATION  OF  INDUSTRY  by  rhythm 
and  the  dance  (see  Dance,  Rhythm); 
by  the  festival  (see  Festival);  by 
religion  (see  Religion);  by  overseers 
(see  Slavery);  by  captains  of  indus- 
try (see  Factory  system). 

RELATIONS:  destructive,  23,  24,  30-34, 
39  (see  also  Exploitation,  War) ;  con- 
structive, 30  (see  also  Industry, 
Workmanship  instinct);  with  fire, 
23;  with  animals,  23,  24,  32,  34,  37; 
with  plants,  23,  41  (see  also  Agri- 
cultural stage);  with  natural  forces 
(see  Motive  power);  sympathetic, 
23.  37,  So,  51;  ethical,  84-6,  89,  90, 
93~5'»  of  worker  to  the  work  (see 


Work);  of  child  to  technique  repre- 
sented by  the  tool,  105,  107,  108, 
115, 116, 133,  156,  171,  256; funda- 
mental relations  laid  bare  in  primi- 
tive societies  and  obscured  in  com- 
plex ones,  i. 

RELIGION  AS  A  MEANS  OF  REGULATING 
INDUSTRY,  43,  83. 

REVOLUTION,  INDUSTRIAL,  170,  250. 

RHYMES,  76-9. 

RHYTHM  :  the  body  a  factor  in,  76  (see 
also  Body);  a  means  of  securing 
co-operative  action,  25,  34,  72,  76, 
162,  163  (see  also  Art,  Music). 

RICHARDS,  ARTHUR  W.,  257. 

ROADS,  origin  of,  167. 

ROGERS,  MRS.  BESSIE  B.,  referred  to, 
187,  188. 

ROUSSEAU,  100. 

RUSKIN,  58. 

SAND,  176,  177. 

SAND-BOX,  177. 

SAND-MODELING,  197,  201,  208,  224. 

SAVAGE:  brain  of  the,  18  (see  also 
Mind);  attitude  toward  work,  70. 

SAW-MILL,  significance  of,  224. 

SCIENCE:  its  relation  to  industry,  56 
(see  also  Differentiation,  Industry); 
attitude  of  the  child  toward,  105-12 
(see  also  Exploitation);  its  relation 
to  construction,  167,  168;  contribu- 
tions of  to  child-study,  248,  249; 
development  of  in  modern  times,  85. 

SEA  AND  SKY  AS  FACTORS  IN  EDUCA- 
TION, 35. 
SELF-EXHEBmVE       INSTINCT,       25-30, 

Si,  115, 116  (see  also  Approval,  Art, 
ress,  Ornament). 
SEQUENCES  OF  RACIAL  ACTIVITIES,  124, 

134-55,  247  (see  also  Evolution). 
SERFS,  83. 

SEWING,  materials  for,  181-3. 
SHALER,  N.  S.f  59. 
SHELTER,  19,  114,  129,  183. 
SHEPHERDS  (see  Pastoral  stage). 
SINGER,  PROFESSIONAL,  38. 

SITES,  EXPLORED  BY  PILGRIMS,  192-6. 

SITUATION:  in  mid-Pleistocene  period, 
16, 17;  in  late  Pleistocene  period,  28; 
of  early  fishing  tribes,  31;  during 
transition  from  hunting  and  fishing 
to  pastoral  and  agricultural  life, 
35,  36. 

SKELETONS  FOUND  IN  CAVES  IN 
FRANCE,  18. 

SKILL:  in  textiles,  38,  76;  in  crafts 
transferred  to  art,  26,  73-9. 

SLAVERY:  its  relation  to  agriculture, 
43,  81,  82;  its  conditions  should  not 
be  perpetuated  in  the  schools,  103, 
i2i,  163  (see  also  Regulation  of 
industry). 

SMELTING,  45,  46, 130. 


INDEX 


269 


SMITH,  WORTHINGTON  P.,  18. 

SOAP-MAKING,  242. 

SOCIETY,  (see  Approval). 

SOCIOLOGY,  a  factor  in  elementary 
education,  6. 

SONG  72,75,247. 

SPECIALIZATION,  premature:  in  ani- 
mals, 19,  20;  in  the  child,  88,  108, 
zoo- 

SPINNING,  38,  75,  144,  226,  227. 

STAGES  OF  DEVELOPMENT:  racial  (see 
Agricultural  stage,  City-state,  Fac- 
tory system,  Feudal  system,  Fishing 
stage,  Handicraft  system,  Hunting 
stage,  Metals,  Pastoral  stage,  Trade , 
Transportation,  Travel);  individual 
(see  Childhood,  Infancy,  Transition 
from  infancy  to  childhood). 

STANDARDS  (see  Approval,  Measure- 
ment). 

STIMULUS  (see  Activity,  Attitudes, 
Curriculum,  Problem). 

STORY-TELLER  EMERGES  FROM  THE 
MASS,  38. 

STRAINS,  intellectual,  moral,  and  phy- 
sical, 71, 133  (see  also  Attention). 

SURPLUS  ENERGY:  little  surplus  before 
the  conquest  of  fire,  22,  24,  28; 
greater  surplus  in  later  stages,  33, 
34t  36-8,  42;  seeks  expression  in  art 
and  play,  74  (see  also  Art,  Food, 
Play). 

SWIMMING,  149. 

TABOO,  83. 

TECHNIQUE:  stage  of  undeveloped,  64, 
65,  103;  its  relation  to  other  factors 
in  the  educational  process,  133,  134, 
156,  171,  256  (see  also  Strains 
Tools). 

TEETH,  burden  placed  upon,  22. 

TEXT-BOOKS,  need  of  a  change  in  the 
character  of,  250-55. 

TEXTILES,  38,  75,  178, 179,  225-30. 

THOMAS,  W.  I.,  29,  95.     ' 

THWAITES,  The  Colonies,  quoted,  217- 
19. 

TOOLS:  a  means  of  reinforcing  man's 
body,  22,  32,  34,  36,  48,  82-6,  92, 
134  (see  Body)-,  adapted  to  later 
infancy,  115;  adapted  to  transitional 
period,  133-52-,  period  of  the  tool, 
133;  relation  to  machines,  153,  154  , 
170-2. 

TOPOGRAPHY,  112-26. 

TOWN  ECONOMY,  54-6. 

TOWNSHIP,  NEW  ENGLAND,  214. 

TOYS,  childrens',  107,  108. 

TRADE:  origin  of,  48;  promoted  by 
religious  festivals,  49;  markets 
established,  49-,  privileges  granted  to 
traders,  49;  standards  of  measure- 
ment established,  49;  first  articles  of 


trade,  50;  development  of  technique 
of,  50,  51;  effects  of,  51;  its  use  in 
education,  130-2,  149-52;  colonial 
218-24. 

TRADING-POSTS,  data  for  construction 
of,  221. 

TRADITION,  46. 

TRAILS,  the  earliest  routes  of  travel, 
48,  167. 

TRANSITION  FROM  INFANCY  TO  CHILD- 
HOOD: psychical  attitudes,  121,  122; 
physical  co-ordinations,  133;  mate- 
rials for  enriching  experience  in,  122- 
55;  use  of  primitive  industries,  122, 
123;  sequences  presented.  124-52; 
mistake  of  using  stories  merely 
to  gratify  the  child's  instincts,  126; 
relation  of  stories  to  play,  126,  127: 
how  topography  may  become  of 
interest  at  this  time,  129;  transition 
from  interest  in  play  to  interest  in 
serious  activity,  120-55;  significance 
of  this  period  with  reference  to  the 
tool,  133;  relation  to  tools  to  the 
body,  133-52;  educational  value  of 
child's  inventions,  133-55;  the  ham- 
mer, 135-7;  the  knife  and  spear, 
138-40;  bow  and  arrow,  141-8; 
boats,  148-52;  mechanical  princi- 
ples, 153,  154. 

TRANSPORTATION:  primitive,  48-51, 
148-52;  application  of  steam  to 
means  of,  56;  break  in,  49,  127; 
colonial,  222,  223. 

TRAPS,  a  factor  in  the  domestication  of 
animals,  36. 

TRAVEL:  original  stimulus,  48;  trails 
the  earliest  routes,  48,  167;  purposes 
of,  48;  influence  upon  handicraft  sys- 
tem, 54,  55;  application  of  steam  to 
means  of,  56;  a  subject  of  educa- 
tional value  for  the  child,  132  (see 
also  Boats,  Roads,  Trade,  Trans- 
portation). 

TROPHY,  significance  of,  27. 

TROPISMS,  63. 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CHICAGO,  LABORA- 
TORY SCHOOL,  237. 

UNIVERSITY  OF  UTAH,  TRAINING 
DEPARTMENT,  228. 

URUS,  16,  19. 

VEBLEN,  THORSTEIN,  68,  69. 

WAGE-WORK,  54. 

WAR  :  upon  animals,  24-35;  upon  man, 
38,  41,  8i(  82;  its  social  service,  39 
43,  44;  beginnings  of  fortification, 
41;  relation  to  development  of  mu- 
sical instruments,  79. 

WASTE  m  THE  EDUCATIONAL  PROCESS 
9,  10,  247. 

WEAPONS  (see  Devices,  Inventions). 


270 


INDEX 


WEAVING,  75,  227,  228  (see  also  Tex- 
tiles). 

WEEDEN,  Economic  and  Social  His- 
tory of  New  England,  quoted,  206, 
231. 

WILSON,  THOMAS,  141. 

WOMAN'S  SHARE  IN  THE  DIVISION  OP 
LABOR,  24,  41. 

WOOD-WORK,  183. 

WORK:  attitude  of  savage  toward,  70; 
attitude  of  the  child  toward,  71,  72, 
144, 157  (see  also  Activity,  Attitude) 
inadequate  provision  made  for 


training  people  for  their  work,  4,  86; 

optional  work  in  the  schools,  168; 

and  play,  73,  157. 
WORKERS:  affected  by  their  work,  86; 

by  minute  division  of  labor,  57,  84; 

by  handicrafts,  84. 
WORKMANSHIP  INSTINCT:  origin  of, 

67-72;  looseness  in  the  use  of  the 

term,  67;  how  affected  by  successive 

stages  of  culture,  69-87;  its  relation 

to  art  and  play,  73-80  (see  also  Art, 

Industry,  Play). 


UNIVERSITY  OP  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


THIS  BOOK  IS  DUE  ON  THE  LAST  DATE 
STAMPED  BELOW 


'EB  8   • 


DEC  19  1917 
JAu  27  1920 


OF  CALIF.,  BERK. 


30m-l,'l 


/  Ybi  UbUtib 


et 


304759 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


